Monday, September 30, 2019

Impact of Peers and School in Middle Childhood Essay

Middle childhood is a stage in growth where the members age between six and twelve years. Sigmund Freud defines this as the latency stage where aggressive and sexual urges are introverted. Others theorists have highlighted this stage as very crucial in the development of personality, cognitive skills, inter-personal relationships and motivation. Furthermore, it is at this growth stage that peers and school have great impacts, either positive or negative, to the individual. Schools do promote the children’s competence and self-esteem since they are enthusiastic to learn and work. This enthusiasm plays a great role since it acts as a motivating factor. Due to their development in competence in social and interpersonal relationships as aforesaid, they also undergo an experience in peer orientation. If they interact with the best peers, they create a strong foundation for future adult rapports that will be healthy. The diverse relationships may lead to increased violence in schools, drug use, depression and eating disorders that negatively affect the students in the upper elementary education (Blume & Zembar, 2007). In schools, the children also learn and develop interests in other co-curricular activities such as sports, arts and music. However, as they grow, the necessary skills for achieving success in academics tend to become more sophisticated. Those who overcome these challenges end up being academic conquerors but those who are overwhelmed perform poorly in the subsequent years. One’s family at this growth stage also plays an important role especially in socialization. The parents, for instance, have the responsibility to make negotiation with the socialization agents on behalf of the child. This kind of socialization that is family-based is directly linked with the child’s deviance, either in the current life or in the future. It may lead to the child indulging in alcoholism, aggression or delinquency. However, through various reinforcement and disciplinary methodologies, the parents teach their middle-aged children on the behaviors to adopt and those to refrain from (Collins, 1984). Academically, parents motivate their children to be performers. This influences them to embrace reading and more often than not, require them to come out directly from school.

Sunday, September 29, 2019

Gardner’s Theory on Seven Intelligences

Gardner’s intelligence theory comes from a book he wrote and published titled Frames of Mind (1983). Gardner’s theory on the seven intelligences was quickly adapted by the educational and training fields to help educators and trainers to understand personalities, intelligence, and learning styles. This has enabled educators and trainers to narrow in on how to teach and grasp the attention of all their students and trainees. Whereas encouraging and motivating them by understanding how they learn and the best way to teach them. Gardner’s theories and concepts are aids to understanding overall personalities and strengths. These theories and concepts are all easily understood and can be incorporated into almost any educational or training situation, to better assist in the education and training process. Sometimes combining more than one intelligence helps in finding the best way to educate and train individuals all over the world. Linguistic Intelligence is the intelligence of language or words, when you learn by writing the information down, or when you absorb information my hearing words this is all a form of Linguistic Intelligence. When you form images in your mind when learning or you have to picture what is being taught in your head this is part of the Spatial Intelligence. When you learn by listening to music or if you absorb information better when music is playing this is the Musical Intelligence. Now when learning comes when you actually do what is being taught, hands on so to speak this is called the Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence. Interpersonal Intelligence is happening when a person can learn about a person or situation by the vibe they get from another person in the situation. Also when you learn better through interactions with others like group projects or having a study buddy this can be considered Interpersonal Intelligence. When you rely on self to learn, by understanding your own feelings and interest this is the Intrapersonal Intelligence. People that use Intrapersonal Intelligence are usually independent learners. Now with Logical Mathematical Intelligence you learn by patterns and reasoning, often needing facts to solve problems, also with learning things need to make sense or be logical. Out of the Seven Intelligence Theories produced by Howard Gardner I believe that Linguistic and Bodily- Kinesthetic are the two that are most dominate in my life. When I learn or am trying to absorb information. I have to hear the words and follow along with the written words when possible. So I download audio files of my text books and take good notes, and when I go over my notes I always read them out loud. As with the Bodily- Kinesthetic Intelligence, I see this come through when I write information that I am trying to learn this ties into my Linguistic Intelligence, because I not only need to see and hear my work, I have to physically write it down. The motion of the writing and picturing the words in my mind, I always find it easier to retain information. In studying Gardner’s theories on intelligences I have so much about helping myself to learn more effectively and efficiently.

Saturday, September 28, 2019

Parliamentary reforms in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries Essay

How far would you agree that fear of popular hostility was the main reason why governments enacted parliamentary reforms in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries? The reform movement first started to achieve mass support in the 1760s; during the years of the French Revolution it even appealed to the members of the anti-reform Whig party but as war with France started, the authorities feared revolution as had happened in France and so used repressive measures in a bid to stamp out these new ideas. It was in 1815 however that the reform movement began to become more significant – when widespread unemployment attracted the masses to the idea of reform. But as conditions improved during the 1820s the pressure for reform decreased – as Cobbett said, â€Å"I defy you to agitate a man on a full stomach†. The reform movement was not unified nor was it on a national scale. There were different groups urging for changes – the most extensive of these were the radicals, such men as Robert Paine. They campaigned for universal male suffrage, annual parliaments, equal electoral districts, a secret ballot, the payment of MPs and the abolition of property qualifications for MPs. There were some more radical that others however and along with little agreement on what should be the best policy of reform they had little success on parliament. There were also calls for reform from more moderate radicals and members of the Whigs that called for measures for more limited reform such as disfranchising the worst of the rotten boroughs and giving representation to larger towns. The lack of reform prior to the 1832 Act can be explained by the lack of unity of the reformers and their less that significant support in the country but more importantly the Tories’ anti-reform majority in parliament and the small number of pro-reform Whigs and radicals. The economic slump of 1829 and an increase in poor harvests caused unemployment and distress for many working class families and thus made them more susceptible to reformist ideology. This period saw the reform movement revived by such radicals as Cobbett and Hunt; the BPU, a reform organisation was also founded by Thomas Attwood which provided a pressure group aligning the lower and middle class people – this provided the opportunity for others to be created throughout the country during 1829-30 with the middle and working classes increasingly cooperating together; the combination of the two provided a class alliance that the Tories were fearful of. The death of the pro-Tory King George IV necessitated a general election in which the Tories’ majority was heavily reduced and the continuation of Wellington’s government became uncertain with the increase of Whig seats. This was due to the pro-reform attitude of the country – especially within the counties and open boroughs. The election saw the return of Henry Brougham in a seat for Yorkshire; he was more popular in the country than any Whig leader and had promised to initiate parliamentary reform. With the reform movements continued support, other agitation began to emerge in the country. The Swing Riots of Southern England involved burning hayricks and breaking machinery which they blamed for reducing employment for farm workers. Although easily suppressed, the Whigs, worried of unrest and encouraged by the Tory decline, announced their intention to introduce reform legislation in the Commons; Wellington however continually expressed his belief that the existing system â€Å"possessed the full and entire confidence of the country†. In November 1830 the defeat of the Tory government in the Commons brought an end to their 20 years of rule. This opened the door to the Whigs – who had already expressed intention in reforming parliament – who formed a minority government. The Whigs’ aim of producing this legislation was a measure large enough to satisfy public opinion but to also provide resistance to further innovation and to uphold the authority of the Aristocracy and the existing Whig government. Although they wanted to remove the most blatant abuses, they were heavily concerned with preserving as much as possible the social and political status quo. Their strategy was to remedy the grievances of the middle classes – thereby gaining their support and dividing the middle-working class alliance of the reform movement which posed huge problems for the government of left unresolved. The Bill made no concessions to the radicals and working classes meaning that post-reform agitation would almost certainly continue. During the Bill’s progression through parliament, agitation continued. Political unions organised demonstrations, riots occurred in Nottingham and Bristol and further violence seemed possible. This extra-parliamentary agitation only strengthened the Whig government’s determination in passing the Bill. When King William IV refused to create more Whig peers to carry the Bill through the Lords, Grey resigned and Wellington took office again. This resulted in the ‘Days of May’ where nationwide protests and demonstrations made some fearful of revolution; reformers also threatened an economic crisis by withdrawing gold from the banks – ‘to stop the Duke, go for gold’. With Wellington’s failure at forming a government, and the huge public opinion in favour of reform, the King had no choice but to create these necessary peers – the Tory majority in the House of Lords however conceded and the Bill was passed. It can therefore be seen that although reform was intended by the Whigs, there was still fear of an uprising that could have swayed members votes, especially in the Commons. Further parliamentary reform was inevitable – the Whigs had recognised the huge public opinion in favour of reform and were now in a majority in the House of Commons. Lord Althorp even warned Grey in 1833 that ‘without popular measures, the Reform Act will lead to revolution’. It is therefore clear that the fear of uprisings was still apparent to many even after the Act was passed. Although the next Reform Act wasn’t passed until 1867, there was still popular agitation in the country. This especially came from the Chartist movement whose demands would have essentially made Britain into a democracy; their demands were however ignored by parliament largely based on the fact that anti-reformer Palmerston was in charge for much of the period between the Acts. With an increasing number of reform legislation being passed – both social and economic – the country was becoming more democratic and with this came factors in determining parliamentary reform. As well as radical demands for reform continuing, a new factor of party political opportunism was also present – it was in the Conservative parties’ own interests to pass the Second Reform Act. As had happened prior to the 1832 Act, 1866 saw economic problems which increased social discontent and fuelled the calls for reform – this is evident in the huge surge of membership to the Reform Union and Reform League. In 1866 both organisations – one middle class, the other working – started working together, creating the same threat that the Tories had feared back in 1830. It was the Liberal party that introduced the first Bill to parliament, with them seeing the opportunity in enfranchising selective members of working class who were already in favour of the party. The radicals backed the Bill but believed that the measure was too limited; many right-wing Liberals however thought the opposite – that the Bill would enfranchise too many of the working class. The Conservatives saw the opportunity of the split ideology and the Liberal party and worked with the right-wingers in defeating the Bill in June of 1866; the Liberal government resigned, giving way to a minority Conservative administration. Despite his own parties’ opposition to reform, Disraeli introduced his own reform Bill based purely on self-interests in gaining the support of the proposed boroughs to be enfranchised. Moreover, Disraeli also claimed that he intended to ‘destroy the present agitation’ in the country. As well as party political interests, agitation was still ongoing with radicals and organisations pushing for reform. A peaceful demonstration by the Reform League in London had erupted in violence in July 1966; this, along with further riots, convinced many MPs on the need for reform. Disraeli’s Bill – introduced in March 1867 – was more moderate than the Liberal one before it, with the intention that those who opposed the last Bill will accept this one. Rather than it being defeated, Disraeli was willing to make the Bill even more radical than the one prior – it was their certainty that redistributing seats would return a Conservative majority that made members within the party support the Bill, along with the radical MPs. It can therefore be seen that self-interests of parties was the main factor in bringing about the Second Reform Act rather than agitation in the country, which was the case during the 1830s. Calls for a secret ballot had been apparent since the late eighteenth century, it was even considered during the Reform Bill in 1831. It wasn’t however agitation that led to the Ballot Act of 1872, it was the election of 1868. Violence, corruption and intimidation had occurred as in every election prior but what was surprising was the publicity the election received with journalists commenting on the extent to which violence was a factor. The government set up a committee in 1870 to look into this with their report favouring a system of secret voting. Although the Conservatives apposed such a measure, they saw the opportunity in getting radical support so pushed ahead with the Bill. Intimidation still continued even with an increased electorate and secret voting – it simply meant that candidates had to spend more to win over the voters. Secret voting did however mean that voters would not necessarily vote for the candidate they had received money from; this, along with radical calls for reform, urged governments of the time to act. The 1883 Corrupt and Illegal Practices Act passed with both Conservative and Liberal support – it limited the expenditure of elections (fell by three-quarters in the 1885 election) and in turn reduced corruption and violence. It was parties interests – saving them the huge expense of elections – that again prevailed over agitation to pass reform. After the 1867 Act, most politicians had accepted that further parliamentary reform was inevitable, even if they didn’t support it. It was therefore important to ensure that reform was in the parties interests, as had occurred in 1867. It was again party self-interests that determined the Third Reform Act – Gladstone agreed to support moderate reform believing he would gain popularity in the country. A Liberal Bill was introduced in 1884 with the Conservative majority of the House of Lords, led by Salisbury, believing that although an extension of the county franchise would be beneficial to the Liberals, a redistribution of seats would prevent them from gaining a sufficient majority. By this time conflict had reappeared again, not regarding reform but the abolition of the House of Lords. The riots that followed were not on the same level as in 1832 and the government had little to worry about. There was no significant extra-parliamentary pressure for reform, it was the parties’ acting in self-interest for themselves in trying to pass the Bill that really counted. A compromise was finally reached – the Arlington Street compact – in which both parties got what they wanted – the Liberals an extension of the franchise and the Conservatives the redistribution of seats. With each successive Act making the House of Commons more democratic, the House of Lords remained essentially aristocratic, with many radicals proposing the upper House be reformed. There were repeated calls for the House to be abolished, especially during the Liberal’s Home Rule Bill, which was thrown out by the Lords. The election of 1906 produced a Liberal majority of over 200 seats, with the Lords – still a Conservative stronghold – poised to block key Liberal measures in the following years. The Parliament Bill was introduced in 1910, but the Lords were reluctant to pass such a measure that would removed their power of veto. Liberal Prime Minister Asquith therefore urged the King to create more peers to secure a Liberal majority insisting that there was a serious state of unrest among the middle classes that could lead to harming the crown. The Bill was reintroduced to Parliament with the House of Lords finally accepting the proposals in August 1911 rather then see the House swamped by Liberal peers. The 1911 Parliament Act can therefore be seen as very little to do with agitation in the country and more of the fact of the increasing hostility between the Liberal government and the Conservation Lords. Although the electoral system was now more representative of the people than ever before, there were still huge numbers of people who were denied the vote – women for example made up half of the population but still had no proper political voice. The system was therefore still criticised, with the Liberal party calling for further reform – including manhood suffrage and the abolition of plural voting. It was from the women’s suffrage movement that significant pressure on parliament after 1885 emerged. Parliament found it increasingly difficult to ignore calls for reform from organisations such as the National Union of Women’s Suffrage and the Women’s Social and Political Union, both of which held demonstrations and were increasing in popularity. They began more militant activities including vandalism and attacks on MPs which only helped to alienate potential supporters, it was in fact the more moderate groups that found the greater success. Once again it came down to party politics with the Liberal party in 1905 believing that enfranchising women on the same basis as men would create a majority middle-class, who were more than likely to vote Conservative. The reform movement virtually disappeared during the outbreak of the war, which reinforces the claim that the Fourth Reform Act – passed in 1918 – was a result of the parties, and not extra-parliamentary pressure. The Liberals and Labour both supported universal male suffrage by now, with the Conservatives apposing the idea at first but hoping such enfranchised men would vote Conservative. Women were also partly included in the act – not because of suffragette pressure, but because before the war a majority of MPs favoured extending the vote to them as long as it was in their parties interests. It can therefore be seen that virtually no agitation or pressure was put on parliament during the time leading up to the 1918 Act, it was simply due to the self-interests of the parties – with each benefiting from a particular aspect of the Bill.

Friday, September 27, 2019

Cold war 1989-1991 under Bush's Administration Essay

Cold war 1989-1991 under Bush's Administration - Essay Example The barometer to consider whether or not to intervene was different in each case. The important characteristics of post-Cold War conflicts were that they did not relate to superpower completion. U.S. interests did not face severe threat, as it was in the Cold War calculus. The strife at far-off places was not of consequence to the national security of U.S. and the vital interests were more or less secure, with no compelling reasons to intervene. There was no confrontation with Soviet Union who was once the dangerous contender for U.S. interests. With the end of the Cold War, trouble fomented at various spots leading to a series of events of inter-state aggression. U.S. had no decisive platform to intervene, either political or legal. Its foreign policy was against, â€Å"interference in the internal affairs of others." U.S. could not pursue a policy of isolationist, it needed active political and economic support from governments and U.S. was averse to set forth precedents which affected their relations with other countries. Another important consideration was a bout adherence to international law governing interventions. Without the correct international legal rationale, any intervention would be termed as an act of self-seeking, with motivated desires and with hidden agenda. Decisions for intervention needed to be taken, explained and defended. The break-up of the Soviet Union was an important development, but no American interests were threatened. Besides, it was an ideological conflict and power-struggle between two factions, both owing allegiance to Communism. Intervention decisions have far-reaching economic implications, besides the need for solid domestic support. In the confusing world scenario, with many set of actions taking place simultaneously in different parts of the world, the decision-making process cannot be expected to be orderly and well-structured. That the issue

Thursday, September 26, 2019

The Irish Famine Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Irish Famine - Essay Example The famine, which is also referred to as The Great Hunger, and The Bad Life, and its impact was terrible in terms of demographic decline, triggering off the mass emigration. From a prominent exporter of food, Ireland was reduced to the most unenviable position with its people, leaving the homeland, dying under deplorable conditions on the way to England, Scotland or America or any country that they could find a way to. Ograda writes the book with the intention of providing 'fresh perspectives by an explicitly interdisciplinary and comparative approach comparing the Irish famine with the Third World Famines'. He says one of the main differences between the two is while Irish famine killed people in a large scale and other famines did not, at least not to that extent, though all famines produce individual tragedies. Unlike today's famines that usually happen in the impoverished areas, Irish famine was in the prosperous hub, which Prince Albert called 'the workshop of the world'. (p.5). The pleas for help were treated with the philosophical context, when the Economist answered the requests with a curt "It is no man's business to provide for another.' (p. 6). It was also treated as a natural retribution that the Irish should suffer as a penance. "Many people in high places in both London and Dublin in the 1840s believed that the famine was nature's response to Irish demographic irresponsibility, and t oo much public kindness would obscure that message" (p.6). Potato had been cultivated more as a garden crop in Ireland and an average yield of approximately 6 tons per acre was recorded just before the famine. It was believed that Ireland was highly suitable for potato cultivation due to its acidic soil, damp, temperate climate. When the famine happened, the country was unprepared to a calamity of that scale, and landlords most of them living in England, belonging to the noble cause, could not, or did not do enough to help their farmers. Even though this is the popular conception, Ograda argues that most landlords themselves were insolvent and they were not in a position to help their tenants. During the famine, a large number of landlords lost their ownership of the land. There were other problems like over-cultivation of a rage of potato varieties, adverse consequences of industrial revolution, confiscation of the land in the earlier centuries that left the ownership in the hands of British landlords etc. When famine started and the early deaths were reported, the official reaction was to call for the verification of deaths. An enormous crisis was simmering and by late 1840s 'famine symptoms of wandering beggars, roadside deaths, rising crime rates, poorly attended burials, widespread panic about contagion, and mass evictions were commonplace throughout most of the country'. The situation raged for another five years, unabated and Ograda says that the long-lasting nature of the famine led to compassion fatigue and charitable donations dropped steadily while land clearance and emigration reached a massive scale. Prevention strategies included initially identifying the most vulnerable poor and help them through the relief committees established by the Poor Relief (Ireland) Act of 1838. Admission into the workhouses rose ominously; but the representatives of Board of Guardians refused more money for relief measures. Relief Commissioners and

The Future of bussniess Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Future of bussniess - Research Paper Example Generally, the failure of policymakers and the feeble financial system initiated the depression. However some economists believed with Keynes’ principle in explaining the â€Å"real cause† of the Great Depression -- capitalism (Rothbard, 2000). While capitalism may be to be blamed for the economic turmoil in the 1930s, the absence of enough evidence of the existence of capitalism in the modern economy absolves laissez-faire as the reason behind today’s persistent recession (Paul, 2002). If the today’s economy is indeed depressed, large corporations and small firms will be the first entities to crunch. With the decline of market stocks, investors would likely resell shares or worse, discontinue investments on any business undertaking. Businessmen will depend on government funding to shore up businesses. However when companies can no longer allot for debt servicing, they may undergo bankruptcy. Besides, easy money is not a guarantee since banks are also not recession-proof (Ewing, 2010). The weakening of the financial system would compromise productivity, and largely, labor force planning hence a massive unemployment. High rates of unemployment would result to decrease in demand as those who lost their jobs will cut costs of living. Furthermore, unemployment would result to homelessness, hunger, and/or other psychological and physical problems. To come out of the economic depression, companies should not rely greatly on debt. Aside from the fact that seeking aid from financial services likely incurs bad debt, it eliminates the susceptibility of banks during crises which is not the case. This would also increase independence as they will have to write off toxic assets and make better use of other assets (Ewing, 2010). Banks can no longer depend on low interest rates since this will only increase the dependence of corporations on them. Also, companies should not always resort to a

Wednesday, September 25, 2019

The Business Cycle and Macroeconomic Objectives Term Paper

The Business Cycle and Macroeconomic Objectives - Term Paper Example Recognition of the relationship of withdrawals and injections has also been made which allows better overview of the markets. The relationship of withdrawal and injections has shown an indirect link similar to the savings and investments, taxation and government expenditures. The last and most essentials element of this paper is the discussion of the circular flow of income and the four macroeconomic objectives i.e. a) Economic Growth, b) Reduced Unemployment, c) Rise of Inflation, and d) Deterioration of Balance of Payments. The figure below provides a view on the relationship of the four main objectives of macroeconomics. The figure shows how in a short term the four objectives, i.e. faster growth of output, lower unemployment, lower inflation and the avoidance of balance of payments deficits are related to each other (Sloman and Sutcliffe). The relationship depends on the aggregate demand which is influenced by each phase of the business. a) Expansionary Phase: In this phase (phase 2), the aggregate demand grows very rapidly and the gap between the potential output and actual output is relatively narrower. Here the growth in the output will be relatively rapid and the levels of unemployment will be faced with a drop as well. This provides a solution for two issues however it leads to the other two sectors to be faced with issues (Sloman and Sutcliffe). With the higher levels of shortages the inflation is also affected and this leads to the deteriorating balance of payments which in turn leads to the domestic goods being less competitive in the international markets. b) Peak: At phase three of the cycle i.e. the peak phase, the level of unemployment is at the lowest and the output of the company is at the highest level.

Tuesday, September 24, 2019

Counterfeit Merchandise Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Counterfeit Merchandise - Essay Example The global market for counterfeit goods has been increasing rapidly. Counterfeited goods accounted for 3-4% of the global trade in the past while according to recent estimates of the International Chamber of Commerce it has increased to 7% and is worth around US$350million (Vagg & Harris, 2000, p.108). The problem is extensive in proportions with the US and EU confiscating around US$94million worth goods and 85million counterfeit products respectively in the years 2002-2003(Hilton, Choi & Chen, 2004, p.345). Counterfeiting is prevalent in many sectors such as software, video, music, toys, aircraft spare parts, medicines, perfumes and fashion merchandise such as handbags, watches, textiles (Vithlani, 1998, p.8). Counterfeiting in the software, music and motion picture industry has been on the increase over the years due to technological innovations, reduced costs of counterfeiting and the ease with which the products can be counterfeited (Vithlani, 1997, p.10). Counterfeit spare parts in the aviation industry and fake medicines have serious and far reaching consequences on the health and safety of the people (Vithlani, 1998, p.15). The fashion industry has been plagued by the problem of counterfeit products for many years now. Replicating designs and trademark infringements have become a routine occurrence in the industry causing substantial losses in profits and loss of reputation for the original manufacturers. Fashion counterfeiting is especially rampant in UK and Italy. Counterfeits in perfumes are also common and perfume manufacturers spend around 1-2% of their annual revenues to combat counterfeiting. Many reasons can be cited for the prevalence of counterfeits in the fashion industry. One of the main reasons is that in many countries the trademarks are protected against counterfeiting however, the designs are not protected and don’t come

Monday, September 23, 2019

I DO NOT HAVE A TOPIC Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

I DO NOT HAVE A TOPIC - Essay Example Pollution could also destroy the ozone layer thus altering the climatic condition of the region. This would significantly affect the residents since in terms of tourism since it is one of the major economic activities in the area (Mullerat & Brennan, 2011). †¢ Mission statement: they aim at being the best-loved boutique hotel and restaurant by the guests, owners, and all stakeholders by provide excellent service and care and delivering financial returns to investors (Clarke & Chen, 2009). The company has been involved in multiple social responsibilities. However, regarding the loyalty of the customers that has enabled the company to be among the best in the world, it is only fair that the company continue giving back to the society. The headquarter of Kimpton is located in one of the largest cities in the area (Sun, Stewart, & Pollard, 2010). This means that the population in the area is high: and densely populated. With the improved economic conditions in the area due to high tourism levels, most of the population here own cars and the remaining part of the population use public transport. Some of these cars could result into air pollution if they happen to emit fumes. In addition, this city houses various companies and industries. Such industries pollute the environment through emission of dangerous fumes and introducing waste material into the water sources. Considering that the organization is aimed at creating a good brand image, reducing the levels of pollution is a good move to ensure that the organization saves money from the residents of the area. The reason is that air or water pollution could result into multiple health defects and reducing or eliminating them saves this medical money for such residents (Hancock, 2009). The program is very cost effective especially considering that the company already campaigns for the use of renewable energy in the

Sunday, September 22, 2019

Blood Case Study Essay Example for Free

Blood Case Study Essay 1. A) The primary disorder of this person is Hemolytic Anemia. That is when the bone marrow is unable to produce more red blood cells to make up for the ones being lost. There are more being destroyed faster and the bone marrow can not keep up. http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/ha/ha_whatis.html B) The cause of the leukocytosis is that there is an increase in the production of white blood cells and in this case it is the level of lymphocytes that are elevated. The bone marrow is making too many white blood cells. There is an abnormality in the bone marrow concerning the production of white blood cells and too many are released in the blood. http://www.medindia.net/education/familymedicine/Leukocytosis.htm C) The cause of the thrombocytopenia is due to a low platelet count. The bone marrow is making enough platelets to keep up with the ones being lost. http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/diseases/facts/thrombocytopenia.htm D) The cause of anemia is due to a decreased red blood cell production by the bone marrow. The red blood cells are being destroyed faster than the bone marrow can replace them. The bone marrow is being over exerted. 2. Cephalosporin is used to treat infections caused by bacteria. She will exhibit her skin bruising easily, fatigue, nose bleeds and general weakness http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/dci/Diseases/thcp/thcp_signs.html 3. People with advanced kidney disease commonly become anemic because the kidney’s produce EPO(Erythropoietin) which helps the bone marrow make red blood cells. When they are diagnosed with kidney disease the kidney’s do not make enough EPO and therefore the bone marrow makes less red blood cells causing anemia. http://kidney.niddk.nih.gov/kudiseases/pubs/expect/ 4. A decrease in plasma protein would cause swelling in legs, loss of appetite, excessive urination, headache and jaundice of the skin. A disorder that could cause these effects would be liver disease. 5. The kidney’s are used to regulate blood volume and also the hematocrit. Restricted blood flow will cause an increase in the hematocrit. Low blood pressure causes an increase in hematocrit. 6. Total bilirubin would be increased in a person that has liver damage. 7. The type of white blood cell that would be in great numbers in an infected cut would be a neutrophil. They are produced in the bone marrow. They are fast acting and arrive at the site of an infection within a hour. They kill pathogens by phagocytosis. http://coloncancer.about.com/od/glossary/g/neutrophils.htm 8. Leukocytes also known as white blood cells would be elevated in a person who is combating a virus. Leukocytes defend your body against infections. http://www.buzzle.com/articles/leukocytes-white-blood-cells.html 9. Vitamin K aids in blood clotting. Prolonged use of antibiotics can kill the bacteria in the intestines and cause a deficiency in vitamin K. A vitamin K deficiency can lead to bleeding. http://www.umm.edu/altmed/articles/vitamin-k-000343.htm 10. Having few megakaryocytes would reveal that this person is likely to be having a low platelet count resulting in anemia. 11. Fetal hemoglobin is able to bind to oxygen with greater liking than adult. The fetus has better access to oxygen from mother’s blood. Fetal hemoglobin last about 6 months after the child is born and is taken over by adult hemoglobin. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fetal_hemoglobin 12. Febrile non-hemolytic reaction is most common. It is usually caused by cytokines. It is associated with fever and there is no real lasting side effects. Acute hemolytic reaction is a real serious emergency. It occurs when the person is destroying the donors red blood cells. It is usually caused by giving wrong blood during a transfusion. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfusion_reaction 13. When a Rh negative person is first exposed to Rh positive blood a first time the body builds antibodies like it is something foreign. The second time the person is exposed to Rh positive blood the body is going to attack it. It has built up antibodies against the Rh factor. http://mmcenters.discoveryhospital.com/main.php?id=2093 14. My diagnosis is that she has Cushing’s Disease. There is a tumor in the pituitary gland. The tumor is caused by the adrenal glands, which are making too much of the hormone cortisol. http://familydoctor.org/online/famdocen/home/common/hormone/623.html 15. 1) The primary disorder of this person is Iron Deficiency Anemia. There is too little iron in the body. 2) The ferrous sulfate and ferrous gluconate is necessary because it is a type of iron. It will help the body get back to its normal limit of iron. 3) Some dietary suggestions would be to eat fish, meat mainly liver, fortified cereals and bread because they are all good sources of iron. http://l3.leukemia-lymphoma.org/attachments/National/br_985716044.pdf 16. 1) The disorder of this person is polycythemia Vera. If the EPO levels were increased it would indicate something else and if the arterial oxygen level was high it would indicate something else as well. 2) Phlebotomy will help correct this problem because by removing so much blood over a course of time it will reduce the number of red blood cells and reduce the blood volume so blood can function normal. 3) Myelosuppressive therapy may be needed because phlebotomy may not be enough to correct the problem. The bone marrow’s ability to make red blood cells is being suppressed. 4) The BUN and Creatinine rule out renal or kidney failure. 5) Albumin, ALT, AST, and Bilirubin indicate possible liver problems. http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/polycythemia-vera/DS00919 April Trotter BIO 169 Blood Vessel Histology 1) An artery is an elastic and muscular blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart. There is one exception, the pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs so they can get oxygen ad remove carbon dioxide. Blood is delivered to the arterioles and capillaries trough the systemic arteries. There are three types of arteries. The elastic artery which allows the arteries to stretch. The muscular artery is the most common. There are little or no elastic fibers. They are very strong but not flexible. The arterioles are the smallest of the arteries. They are very important in blood pressure control. The aorta is an elastic artery and is the largest artery in the body. It delivers blood to all parts of the body. The aorta is divided into five sections the descending, ascending, aortic arch, thoracic aorta and the abdominal aorta. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/36874/artery 2) The capillaries are the smallest blood vessels. They have only a tunica intima. They are very fragile and easily destroyed. They have no smooth muscle. The continuous capillaries are the strongest and do not leak. They are found mostly in muscle. Fenestrated capillaries are found in the kidney, pancreas and intestine and are leaky. Sinusoidal capillaries are very leaky and have many pore openings. They are located mainly in the spleen, liver and bone marrow. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capillaries 3) The vein carry blood toward the heart. Veins act as a blood reservoir. There is a low pressure in the veins and they have a thin wall. There is a muscular pump which the veins are placed between skeletal muscle. When the vein is squeezed blood is returned to the heart. The respiratory pump involves the diaphragm. Vein consist of three parts. The tunica externa which is made up of connective tissue and nerves. The tunica media is composed of smooth muscle and the tunica intima is composed of simple squamous. Veins also have valves to prevent blood from flowing the wrong way. http://www.blobs.org/science/article.php?article=54#4 4) The arterioles are the smallest of the blood vessels. They extend from an artery and lead to a capillary. They have only little muscle mass and contain smooth muscle. They carry blood away from the heart as well. They are very important in blood pressure regulation. They change size to keep up with the flow of blood. http://highbloodpressure.about.com/od/highbloodpressure101/p/circ_art3.htm 5) Atherosclerosis is when plaque build up inside an artery and causes a blockage. It is caused by damage to the endothelium. Cholesterol starts to stick, smooth muscle grows abnormally, calcium starts to stick and gets stuck in plaque causing it to get hard. The plaque can rupture and cause blood clots. If the plaque breaks it can move in the blood and cause a heart attack or a stroke depending on where the blockage is. It is a slow progressive disease. http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=4440

Saturday, September 21, 2019

Facts Regarding The Moon And The Illusion Psychology Essay

Facts Regarding The Moon And The Illusion Psychology Essay 1. Introduction The moon rises in the east and settles in the west, following a trajectory route very similar to that of figure 2a. However, during this trajectory the appearance of the moon observed larger on the horizon compared to when it is in its elevated position in the sky is known as the moon illusion for e.g. ( Kaufman et al 1962, 2000, 2006 Reed Kuprinski 2009, Coren Aks 1990, Weizman Cohen 2003, Toskovich 2009, Nanavati 2009), see figure 1ab. This illusion is not only denoted to the moon, it can also be observed by other celestial constellations such as the sun and the stars (Ross and Plug, pg 1-2 2002) (Wade pg 377 2000). It has been found in some cases that the size of the horizon moon appeared almost 1-2 times the diameter of the elevated moon Kaufman and Rock (1962) Ross and Plug (1994). This experience persists even when one is familiar it is an illusion Weizman and Cohen (2003) and has been observed for many centuries, with Aristotle (384-322BC) making the first clear scientific account Ross and Plug, pg 1-2 (2002) Wade pg 377 (2000). However there have been many suggested theories from physics to physiology and now finally psychology as to why this illusion is experienced Wade pg377 (2000), but none has been accepted as the correct answer. The main conflicting issues involve contradictions as to whether it is a linear or angular illusion, thus a model which accounts for both linear and angular illusions providing a common unified explanation is required. Elevated Moon/ Zenith moon Horizon Moon 1a 1b Figure 1a http://facstaff.uww.edu/mccreadd/ and 1b http://www.lhup.edu/~dsimanek/3d/loony.htm (Ken Amis) what the actual illusion looks like in its two comparative positions and an illustration of what the names horizon and elevated moons infer to within this text. 2. Facts regarding the moon and the illusion This is regarded as an illusion because the increase in perception of size occurs even though the visual angle (V) subtended on the eye remains the same regardless of the trajectory position of the moon, i.e. whether the moon is on the horizon or in its elevated position-see figure 2 (For e.g. C.Reed and E. Kuprinski 2009, Kaufman et al 2000). Physically if the angular size changes then a subsequent change of the retinal image size would occur, but it remains constant and hence is regarded as a perceptual phenomenon. The value of this angle has long been accepted as a fairly constant value of 0.52 degrees regardless of elevation For e.g. (Bears, Conners and Paradiso, pg 288,3rd edition, 2006, R Casati, 2003, Ross and Plug, pg 11-14, 2002, Mccready section 1 website). Furthermore evidence can be found in photographs, where many photographers have experienced the illusion, however after photographs become developed the moon image appears small Nanavati (2009). For e.g. Ross and Plug pg 60 (2002) took multiple photos of the sun during different periods of the day and found the size of the sun to be exactly the same during each interval at the different trajectories, similar to figure 2b. Since the camera can only illustrate the linear dimensions of an object this would further enforce the suggestion the illusion is in fact a perceptual phenomenon. Another demonstration involves a simple test called Herings manoeuvre, whereby a subject holds a coin close to their eye at arms length and observes the trajectory of the moon. The result of this will always be that the moon and the coin are the same size no matter what position of trajectory of the moon The Moon Illusion, a literature thesis by Bart Borghuis, (1999), Gregory (2007). Figure 2a http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap020130.html Credit and copyright to Shay Stephens. He picture shows the moonrise trajectory over Seattle, USA, with a snapshot taken every 2.5mins. 2a 2b Figure 2 Taken from Mccready section 1 illustrating the size of the moon does not change with the trajectory and nor does the visual angle subtended. The illusion maybe experienced in different areas of the world and the facts about the orbit of the moon around the earth can be used to explain as to why any variances in the earth-moon distance cannot play a role in the illusion. The moon travels in an orbit around the earth completing one full cycle every ~29days (1 month). The mean Earth-Moon distance is fairly constant throughout this period, however there is a degree of variance in the Earth-Moon distance caused by the elliptical shape of the orbit of travel (Nasa website). This variance causes the size of the visual angle of the horizon moon to become 2% smaller than the elevated moon and may only affect only short time viewing i.e. vieiwning the moon during separate hours in the same day Nanavati )2009), but not significant enough to cause the illusion (Mccready section 1). The distance of travel of the orbit has been monitored by NASA since the initial experimentation was carried out using retro-reflector beams/laser used in the Apollo 11 mission to the moon Faller et al (1969, 1970). The moon travels in an orbit of fairly constant mean distance of 384,000km (NASA website) from the earth and hence discounting the physical distance factor creating the illusion. The size (S) is It has been well established the physical size, distance and visual angle do not change (or not by a significant factor), however Aristotle suggested there was a physical cause that created a real magnification on the image size Nanavati (2009). It was thought this was caused by the atmospheric refraction, which had its effects greatest on the light rays on the horizon causing an increase in the moon size The Moon Illusion, a literature thesis by Bart Borghuis (1999), Ross and Plug pg57 (2002) i.e. like a stone under water where it appears to enlarge in size. However this theory was later disregarded as there was no means of measuring the actual horizon enlargement and if any it was deemed neglible, however many writers and investigators supported the idea that it could possibly play some form of secondary role Ross and Plug pg57 (2002), Gregory (2007). 3. Linear distance illusions 3.1 Size distance invariance hypothesis and Emmerts law The SDIH theory proposes the cause of the horizon moon appearing bigger is due to the extended terrain viewed in between the observer and the horizon moon, thus placing it at a perceptually further distance, for e.g. Kaufman (2000, 2006, 2007), Suzuki (2007), Gregory (2007). The SDIH assumes perceived angle (V) like the objective angle (V) is unchanged Reed and Kuprinski (2009) and implies distance is computed primarily by the visual system, while size is later inferred from this. Due to these conditions where perceived angle (V) is kept constant, only perceived distance (D) and size (S) can only change, thus suggesting a linear distance/size illusion and not an angular illusion Higashiyama (2004) Lou (2007). The SDIH can be illustrated by the formula S/D=tan V (apparent size S, apparent distance D and the physical visual angle V) Higashiyama (2006) Kaufman (2006), see figure 3. The SDIH implies the perceived size (S) is directly proportional to perceived distance (D) and this relati onship can be explained using Emmerts law. The conditions of Emmerts law are the perceived size of an object subtending a constant visual angle is directly proportional to its apparent distance Gregory (2007) Philip Servos (2006). Emmerts law in effect is the description of the size distance invariance hypothesis (SDIH) Jones et al (2009) and is one of the more researched theories within this topic. Afterimages are often used as a means to display Emmerts law since they have a constant visual angle always subtended at any distance and therefore a fixed retinal image size at all times disregarding any changes in angular size Lou (2007). Due to this retinal image size being a constant size, means any increase in the afterimage size cannot be due to any angular illusions. Since Emmerts law states size is proportional to apparent distance, then afterimages can be classed as one means of evidence for the SDIH. Figure 3 SDIH diagram taken from section 2 of http://facstaff.uww.edu/mccreadd/sectionII.html Most investigations usually conform to similar methodologies involving a form of magnitude estimation i.e. size or distance, using a reference moon to a variable moon, for e.g. (Holway and Boring 1941, Kaufman 2000, Gordon M Redding 2002, Jones Wilson 2009, Liang Lou 2007 etc). Kaufman (2000) used artificial moons to display the SDIH as a description of the moon illusion. Subjects viewed these artificial moons of constant angular size against a natural sky in horizon and zenith positions. They compared the size and distance of a reference moon to a variable moon. And altered the size of the variable moon using a keypad to achieve a match, see figure 5. In the results the horizon moon was perceived 3.2 times bigger and 4.2 times further away than the zenith. They found as they increased the distance between the reference and variable moon, the moon perceived size increased. Conversely when the distance was reduced the perceived size decreased therefore implying distance determines perceived size. Due to the availability of visual cues, the horizon moon is perceived at a distance D further than that of the zenith, causing a subsequent increase in size S Higashiyama (2006), (2007). Figure 4 illustrates the principles behind the SDIH and apparent distance theor y, where by the black circles in the inner band exemplify the moon straight above the observers head perceived as closer and hence smaller. The horizon moon in this model is perceived further away and hence bigger. Condition 2-Inside band (black circles) showing proposed SDIH condition Condition 1-Outside band (white circles) showing normal condition Horizon moon Observer Elevated moon Figure 4 (Annotated Figure 1 from Kaufman 2000) demonstrating the two conditions. Condition 1 the outer band of circles demonstrate how the moon should be perceived right from the horizon to its elevated state with no illusion. However condition 2 using this model of the illusion is represented in the second inner band of circles, suggesting the moon straight above the observers head is perceived as closer hence smaller and horizon bigger and further. Figure 5 demonstrates the apparatus used in Kaufman 2000s experiment. An IBM Think-Pad flat panel display specifically designed for this experiment was used. Virtual moons were produced as luminous disks against the natural sky. It was conducted on a hilltop on the C.W. Post campus of Long Island University in Brookville, NY. A total of four moons can be seen: one reference and one variable for both the horizon and elevated moon and subjects adjusted the variable moon using the computer accordingly. Kaufman (2006) further investigated using noise signal detection and two alternative forced choices. Luminous discs of constant visual angles were used however viewed across a virtual terrain in this case containing distance cues. Two separate experiments were conducted on size and distance, which suggested a directly proportional relationship between the two as predicted by the SDIH. Figure 6 compares the log size (y axis) versus the log depth (x axis), inferred as distance and found the slope demonstrates a linear slope of ~1. Thus these results suggest as size increases so does distance, once again supporting the SDIH. The fact the perceived size increases as a directly proportional factor to the distance perceived, indicates that the moon illusion cannot be referred to as an angular account. Figure 6 Kaufman 2006 shows the log perceived depth otherwise regarded as distance (x-axis) and log size (y-axis). A straight line is formed with a gradient of approximately 1, therefore suggesting size is proportional to distance as distance is to size. Tozawa (2006) investigated the roles of motion parallax and perspective cues on size and distance perception and the results yielded were similar and supported the SDIH. Weizman and Cohen (2003) also investigated the SDIH via a matching task using 4 different groups of subjects varying in age. Results indicated 41-88% viewed the horizon moon to be of a greater size and as a consequence supporting the SDIH. 3.2 The paradox The issue with the SDIH is it induces a paradox since many people do not experience the conditions it sets ;( the horizon moon appears both larger and further away) for e.g. (Higayshima 2006, Kaufman 2007, Kotaro Suzuki 2007, Kaufman 2006, Gregory 2007, Jones et al 2009). Instead (Mccready section 3) found up to 90% and Kaufman (2000) 9/10, view the larger horizon moon to be perceived as closer. Size constancy is the visual systems ability to maintain the accurate perception of real size of an object regardless of the change in retinal images size Combe Wexler (2009) Gregory (2007) i.e. when a person is walking away their physical dimensions do not appear to shrink, this relationship is maintained by size constancy regardless of the change in distance, which should create a smaller image size on the retina. One idea proposed as an answer is observers use the perceived distance to scale perceived size, as in SDIH. When enquired about distance, this scaled size and previous experience of sizes of objects from size constancy are used to determine distance. Hence due to this experience the observer makes a logical choice, thus in effect proposing there is a bias towards experiencing bigger objects to appear closer Kaufman (2000) (2007). However what is suggested in effect is there are two different routes taken to decipher size from distance and distance from size and without a ny direct evidence these ideas cannot be accepted as yet. 3.3 The apparent distance theory The apparent distance theory states the perceived distance is not only determined by the retinal image size, but factors such as visual cues within the surrounding terrain play a controlling role in judgment, for e.g. (Gregory 2008), Suzuki (2007), Kaufman (2000). There are many different types of visual cues from which the visual system can infer distance from and the amount of effect each cue has also varies. The terrain in one direction and its absence in the other play a vital role in the illusion Kaufman and Rock (1962). The role of cues plays an integral part in the SDIH, since the perceived distance determines the judged size and in effect can be described as SDIH since the findings directly support it. Pictorial representations of the illusion have been used as a methodology for investigation of depth cues, for e.g. (Coren and Aks 1990, Redding 2002, Jones et al 2009).The benefit of this being that any structural factors such as accommodation that may contribute towards the processing of size and distance are eliminated as cues and only visual cues i.e. terrain are left to investigate Redding (2002) Coren Aks (1990). The apparent distance theory would predict the horizon moon appears bigger due to distance cues placing it at a further distance and the zenith moon as closer, hence smaller, just as in SDIH. Jones and Wilson (2009) findings supported the apparent distance theory and demonstrate the level of effect of cues on the perceived distance. They used pictorial representations of of different salience as cues to depth, figure 7 displays the pictures used in increasing salience of each picture from A-D. Subjects viewed a reference moon placed on the horizon and zenith on the different scenes (figure 7 A-D) and compared this to a set of variable moon sizes on a computer, judging the match in size. A positive score (above 0) in the results from figure 8 indicated a perceived increase in size. Results show as the salience increases so does the perception of size for both moon trajectories, therefore these findings emphasize regardless of salience of cues, the mere presence of some form of cues effectively increase perceived size. However in all scenes the horizon moon is perceived bigger and significantly more so in the two scenes of high salience (figure 7 C and D). This infers proxi mity is a key factor and thus illustrates why the horizon moon is judged bigger, since it is in closer proximity to the terrain and the greater salience exaggerates this effect. Figure 7 taken from Stephanie 2009 figure 1 illustrating the different pictorial representations used as devices for the different depths of cues. A) Drawing of lowest depth cue salience B) Drawing of intermediate depth cue salience C)Drawing of high depth cue salience- Town scene D) Drawing of high depth cue salience- City scene. Figure 8 From Stephanie et al 2009 experiment number 1. The results were based on the size of error scores between the subjective responses of perceived size of the variable moon compared to the control moon size. Significant differences in size between the horizon moon and elevated moon indicated the degree of strength each cue played on that particular moon. The positive error score indicated an increase in perceived size and negative score a decrease. Redding (2002) also supported that cues in the terrain are essential for size scaling to create the impression of a bigger horizon moon, as well as the proximity to the terrain. A pictorial representation of an upright and inverted gradient, with two moons positioned like figure. The upright gradient produces fine details very close together giving the impression of a receding distance like in the horizon. However the upright gradient was more spaced out mimicking the large expanses of space surrounding the zenith moon. The apparent distance theory would predict a reverse in the illusion if the visual scene was inverted i.e. the horizon moon would now look smaller than the zenith. The results show the mean illusion, where a positive score indicates the normal moon illusion occurred and negative the reverse. These results demonstrate the prediction was correct since the horizon moon size increased in the upright direction and reversed in the inverted. Within virtual environments it has been found the size constancy mechanism is very strong when the object being viewed is surrounded by an environment, where comparisons can be made to decipher distance from, for e.g. (Kenyon et al 2007, Tanaka Fujita 2007, murgia and sharkey 2009). It has been suggested the elevated moon is perceived smaller due to the lack of surrounding visual cues for e.g. (Higashiyama 2006, Kaufman 2000, Jones et al2009). The proposed idea is the zenith moon due to no visual cues is placed at default distance related to the resting focus of approximately 1-2m regarded as empty space myopia, thus leading to its small perceived size (Da Silva 1989, Gogel Mertz, 1989, Redding 2002, Gregory 2007, Suzuki 2007). 3.4 Sky dome illusions The apparent shape of the sky was previously replicated in a drawing by King and Gruber (1962), where they made subjects project afterimages onto the sky in different directions (horizon 45. Zenith). Results had shown 81% of subjects viewed the moon bigger in the horizon sky than at 45. and 87% viewed horizon bigger than the zenith. Weizman and Cohen (2003) found the sky is perceived as an oblate profile i.e. like an inverted bowl with a flat top (see figure) and cues within this frame are used to judge the distance. It has been proposed this flattened dome top causes the zenith moon to appear closer and thus smaller. This theory implies a mental map of the shape of the sky as an oblate- bowl shape, with the flat portion directly above the observers head. This flatter area causes the perception of a shorter distance to the sky just above the observers head and thus causes the zenith moon to be perceived as smaller. This is very similar to the SDIH approach which states the same fundamental reasons, but the SDIH suggests its the absence of visual cues that place the zenith moon at a closer distance and hence smaller, not a mental map model of the sky. However Toskovich (2009) examined to test if the flattened sky caused the moon size to reduce and suggested otherwise. Subjects viewed the moon in the horizon, 45Â ° and zenith positions using head movements and were positioned at 1m, 3m and 5m from the moon. They were instructed to determine distance and size estimates from these positions. Results had shown from 1m subjects perceived distance is the same in all directions thus indicating at close distances the visual system is able to interpret very accurately. However from 3m and 5m found the distances perceived to the zenith as larger than towards the horizon and no differences in size estimations at any direction. This is opposite to the flattened sky dome approach and proposes the sky is rather perceived as elongated towards the zenith and not flat. These findings suggest the illusion is affected by head position and location. 4. Visual angle illusions To begin with Descartes, 1664 Wade 2000 pg (354-355) suggested associations with familiar objects, accommodation and convergence are all cues to distance. The apparent-distance theory is built upon the assumption the actual perceived visual angle is interpreted as the same as the physical linear visual angle Reed and Kuprinski (2009). However, alternative theories suggest the perceived visual angle may be affected by oculomotor processes unconsciously Mccready (2006) Keef and Kuprinski (2009) and size/distance then subsequently inferred from this. 4.1 The retinal representation of the moon illusion If the illusion causes the perceived visual angle to change by becoming enlarged, then subsequently the perceived retinal image size should also increase. Murray et al (2006) found illusions such as the moon illusion affect retinal representation of the image size in the primary visual cortex (V1). Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and a 3d scene of a hallway with walls, an image had been produced containing information to apparent depth, see figure 9a for an illustration. Two 6.5 degree sized spheres were arranged like in figure 9a and the results showed the back sphere appeared to be 17% larger in angular size than the front sphere (even when of the same physical angular size). The results in figure 9a also illustrate the peak MRI signal responses were found higher at higher eccentricities for the perceptually larger back sphere than the front and the back sphere occupied a larger area in the V1 cortex. Thus implying the perceived bigger size of the back sphere cre ated a bigger images size on the retina. Furthermore these results were compared to the responses generated by two physically different sized spheres without any illusion (6.5Â ° versus 8.125Â ° and 4.875Â ° versus 6.875Â ° sized spheres, as shown in figure 9bc). The findings demonstrate the responses generated from two physically different sized spheres yielded a response very similar to 9a. Therefore indicating the illusion created an actual change in the retinal image size and a greater eccentricity was occupied by the back sphere as a result. Thus the depth illusion causes a change in the perceived angular size on the retina and hence providing evidence towards scaling processes affecting the representation on the retina (Murray et al 2006). Since only a change in the physical visual angle or perceived visual angle may cause this change in retinal image size. Figure 9 taken from Murray et al 2006 displaying the hallway and the walls creating the illusion. the trial response graph shows the perceptual difference in angular size between the two objects. The top graph illustrates the fMRI activity for the perceived larger back object extending in eccentricity beyond that of the perceived smaller front object. The bottom row shows a similar response is triggered when two objects of physically different angular sizes are shown (with no hallway illusion placed). Therefore indicating the cause in the back object to be perceived more distant is due to an increase in angular size. 4.2 Accommodative micropsia The visual terrain contribution to the moon illusion may be mediated by the state of the oculomotor system and not via the size-distance invariance mechanism, or size constancy scaling Suzuki (2007). The perceived distance may affect the accommodation response or the converse of this may also be true i.e. the level of accommodation may affect the perceived distance of a stimulus (Edgar 2007, Suzuki 2007, Lou 2007). The micropsia phenomenon causes objects to appear smaller than usual and macropsia bigger, whereby they can be induced by changes in accommodation/ Vergence leading to underestimation/ overestimation of its apparent size Howard Rogers (2002). When viewing the zenith moon there is no depth cues and the moon is isolated in an empty space. This causes the eyes to converge onto the single object of the zenith moon, thus increasing in convergence as it does. This increase in convergence induces increase in accommodation causing the decrease in angular size and is known as micropsia, for e.g. Howard Rogers (2002) Mccready (2004) section 4, Lou (2007), Suzuki (2007). However when viewing the horizon moon in its natural settings, objects acting as depth cues in the terrain may cause the AC/V system to adjust from near to far distance thus increased divergence invoking an increase in angular size known as macropsia (Lou 2007, Mccready 2004 section 4, Tanaka Fujita 2007, Suzuki 2007). Lou (2007) used afterimages of dark circles viewed against a mobile white background on which this reference circle was projected on, see figure 10. These afterimages were projected from the various distances and subjects adjusted the variable stimulus on a computer screen when perceived a match with the reference. Results indicated subjects perceived afterimages to decrease in size at focal distances less than 1m i.e. distances at a closer range. Figure 11 displays the 30cm, 90cm and 200cm distances from where the afterimage was projected and regardless of these distances the same response of decrease in matched size. The focal distances affected the matched size and not the distance the afterimages were projected from, Lou (2007) suggested these findings are representation of accommodation micropsia. Although oculomotor cues are used as cues to distance just as visual pictorial cues are used also, they are less effective up to distances >2m Kaufman (2000). Oculomotor cues and pictorial cues play a role in judging distance, however at longer distances pictorial cues play a greater role as determinants of distance Kaufman (2000), Coren and Aks (1990). become slightly near-sighted in relative darkness (night myopia) proof is just to show accomodtaion/convergence effort changes when viewing horizon and elevated moons Figure 10 Figure 11 taken from figure 2b (Lou 2007). This figure demonstrates the 30cm, 90cm and 200cm distances from which the afterimages were viewed from and the perceived angular match to the control afterimage of size 4.25degrees. The straight angular line indicates the actual size of the afterimage (4.25 degrees). The perceived match of the angular size (y-axis) versus calculated focal distance (x-axis). All about enright and roscoedifferent eye adjustement for horizon/zenith moon measured In conclusion against oculomotor micropsia/macropsia, oculomotor cues are less effective in regards to objects being viewed at longer distances. Here the visual/ perceptual system becomes more dependent on other cues such as pictorial factors Arditi (1986) from Kaufman (2000). Kaufman et als claim is that because the moon is far away, pictorial cues dominate oculomotor cues for distance perception. Kaufman (2006) in the end argues that distance is interpreted first and then angular size. Arguing against the micropsia theory. Also , absence of these surrounding environments the size constancy changes to visual angle performance Kenyon (2007) As you look up to the sky convergence increases therefore increased accommodation occurs causing perception of closer moon distance, therefore according to SDIH a smaller perceived size. REFER TO KAUFMAN 2000 But, these micropsia and macropsia illusions cause angular size differences of less than 10%, nowhere near large enough to account for the moon illusion seen by most persons. Also, if accommodation were involved in the moon illusion, youd think that elderly people who have lost nearly all accommodation should not perceive the illusion. Yet they do. Persons with eye lens implants have no accommodation, and they do perceive the moon illusion. Covering one eye removes convergence from consideration, but that doesnt make the moon illusion go away. Pinhole astronomy 4.3 Angle of regard When looking at the horizon moon the head is positioned at eye level, where as when viewing the elevated moon the head position is further elevated by almost 45degs. It has been suggested the tilt or elevation of the head or eyes may affect the judgment of distance and thus implying the moon illusion as anisotropy (directionally dependent) for e.g. Holway and Boring (1940), Higashiyama Adachi (2006), Suzuki (2007), Toskovich (2009). Suzuki (2007) investigated the ratio of size of afterimages projected onto the horizon and zenith sky. Subjects were instructed to project the afterimages onto the horizon sky at eyelevel and then project the image again however after elevating the eye position by 60 degrees (using neck movements) onto the same area of the sky. This was also repeated for the zenith sky and the results yielded indicate the illusion is 1.09 times greater when the eyes are in an elevated position compared to eye level. These findings indicate the level of elevation of the eyes has an effect on the illusion magnitude and is consistent with previous findings. Proprioceptve descriptions suggest non visual components may contribute to judging distance using head direction, body posture, vestibular and kinetic information Toskovich (2009). Furthermore Toskovich suggested head tilt upwards could cause the perceived space to elongate. Figure 11 taken from (Roscoe and Acosta 2008)~figure 4. The number 0 would indicate a perfect size match and a positive value indicates an increase in size and negative vice versa. The x-axis displays the accommodative effort exerted by the visual system and the y-axis the interpretation of the moon size. Anisotropy End with (Perceived size and perceived distance of targets viewed from between the legs: Evidence for proprioceptive theory 2006) and how this supports direct perception model rather than the apparent distance model. (Therefore supports everything except this model) In another experiment 2 Toskovich (2009) measured size at the 3 distances and found size did not change in the three viewing directions and thus suggested the moon illusion may not be caused by a linear account, instead a more contributed input of vestibular information. (Higashiyama Adachi 2006) supported this theory and found the illusion disappeared when viewing through the legs. Thus suggesting the moon illusion is caused by the elevation of head tilt. An astronaut who views the moon above the horizon from low-earth orbit lacks terrain cues to distance. We now know that in this situation the illusion vanishes (Lu et al., 2006) from (Kayfman et al 2007). The terrestrial passage theory offers an alternative idea regarding the visual angle theories mentioned. It states the subjects learn to form an expected change in visual angle when viewing objects at different projections from past familiar experiences (Reed and Kuprinski, 2009). In a sample of 48 subjects this hypothesis was tested and the c

Friday, September 20, 2019

Influence of Darwins theory on modern psychology

Influence of Darwins theory on modern psychology Charles Darwin was a British scientist, who coins the concept of evolution and geological observation. Charles Darwin was greatly inspired by geologist Adam Sedgwick and Reverent/ naturalist John Henslow. Both mean played a major role in the development of his theory. Darwin draws his ideas from those who believed that the sacred book was and extract of world and humans. His work was of great influence on life and development of natural science and psychological thoughts. Darwins career gave him the opportunity to observed various geological structure around the globe as well as living species .This experience have enhance his intellectual thought and prospective of the earths surface. However Angell (2007) states that Darwinism has never been a really vital issues in psychology (The influence of Darwin on psychology). Darwins theory of evolution has been disparaged by the theologians, biologist and even the psychologist. The heavy criticism came in the light of his book origin of species. Biologist wangled that Darwin could not Thomas Malthus was a British economist, who wrote numerous articles about population growth. Malthus theorizes that the availability of food cannot be compared to the geometrical rate of population growth. Thus, overpopulation constantly leads to unending forces of hunger, virulent disease and poverty. The instinctive struggle for survival arrested Darwin attention; as a result, he used Malthuss approach to the theory of evolution. (How did Thomas Malthus influence Charles Darwin?). Darwin theory of evolution is essential, because the food supply issues describe by Thomas Malthus, gave young species the opportunity to complete for their survival. The survival of the fittest would then provide; the future generation with the favourable variation of their heredity. Therefore, each generation would improve adoptively throughout the ages and this attempt would gradual succeed in the development of evolutionary species. This approach was added to Darwin scheme of natural selection, thus h e proposed that all species are related to one common ancestor known as the real eve. Moreover, he offered extra support for the core concept that earth itself is not motionless but evolving .Darwin believed that some of the instinct used in Malthus struggle of survival would invigorate the survival scheme. Throughout his research, Darwin concluded that this ongoing struggle between those more and less fit to survive would produce a never ending progression of change in the organism (How did Thomas Malthus influence Charles Darwin?). Darwin used the ideas of many scholars to develop his theory. He strongly believed that population growth remain pending until existing natural resources becomes stabilized. Thomas Malthus was ordained minister of the gospel, who believed that starvation and illnesses were employed by God to prevent populations growth. He further mentions that lacking these positive checks the population would explode rapidly .Malthus saw life as a divine inspiration that assign men to work fervently. In addition, Malthus dislike most of the statement used by the early philosophers, he believed that human problems can be resolve through the social engineering network. Most of the philosophers, who Malthus dislikes, use his essay as guide to coin their theory (How did Thomas Malthus influence Charles Darwin?). Alfred Russell Wallace Alfred Russell Wallace was the first British naturalist, who coined the term evolution, due to his natural selection. It was his proposal that Darwin use to formulate his theory. Wallaces theory was publicized at the same time of that of Charles Darwin. According to historians, Wallace and Darwin worked independently, yet uninformed about each others research. Both men shared the same perceptiveness about biological mechanism, in which species gradually change to meet the criteria of their environment. During this era, most persons strongly believed that all species were irreversible merchandise of divine creation (Alfred Russel Wallace biography). Evolution is the process by which transformation occur though enormous diversity of the living species. Studies have shown that all living species have descended from one common ancestor in the past. Wallace philosophy of spiritualism was vast different to those of Charles Darwin thesis of human minds. Darwin saw humans as highly evolved organisms; Wallace believed that the human mind was inspired by something outside evolution and that the human spirit could continue to progress after death (Rocky road: Alfred Russel Wallace). At first Wallace believed that the duties executed by men would normal amend with the current time. However, as time progress, he changes his verdict. He maintained that the entire universe was fashioned by human being, just that we are considered a little lower than angels. As young man, though, he thought differently. In one passage about the King Bird of Paradise, Wallace both marvelled at the existence of such amazing creatures that had so seldom been seen by people, and made a prescient observation about humanitys impact on nature (Rocky road: Alfred Russel Wallace). Herbert Spencer Herbert Spencer was the first sociologist in Derby England. Herbert defined sociology as the study of societal evolution and believed that the ultimate goal of societal evolution is complete harmony and happiness (Evolutionary theory, 2004 p. 434). Spencer embraced Charles Darwin theory of natural selection, after he publishes the book origins of species. Spencer was considered an influential supporter of social Darwinism, and subfield of Darwin hypothesis of human societies. Spencer coined the term survival of the fittest to describe the contest between individuals and groups. He theorized that wealth and power are signs of intrinsic fitness, while poverty is considered as evidence of low standard (Evolutionary theory, 2004 p. 434). Spencer concept of adaption permits him to declare that the rich and powerful are capable to adopt the social and economic means of the current time, while the concept of natural selection allows him to argue that it is normal for the rich to progress at the works of the poor. After all, it is an issue of everyday life. In some case Social Darwinist argue that it is inappropriate to assist those who are weak than oneself, since it will promote survival of someone who is inapt Spencer had many very extreme political views and grew to despise government programs that were aimed to help the poor. In the end it was his harsh views on politics that held his ideas back from being accepted right away. Spencer was like Darwin in some ways, but when it came down to the theory of evolution, Spencer took it one step further than Darwin by saying that it involved much more that just biology (Herbert spencer). Charles Lyell Charles Lyell was a well-known geologist and uniformitarian supporter during the mid 19 century. Being a firm believer of uniformitarian (All about Science) he coined the term uniformitarianism. Lyell supported his hypothesis base on geological observation that the made during his visits to Europe and North American. This theory asserts that the same biological process that operates in the past continues to do so in the same way and with the same gradual force. According to Encarta dictionary catastrophism is the process by which the natal description of earth surfaces was structure by a series of impetuous violent, rather than gradual evolutionary theory. This approach have seen a large extinct of animals and plants. An example of this theory is Noahs flood. During the flood, everything was wiped away except those that were taken into the ark. The catastrophist believed that all species created are irreversible. However, the catastrophist perception was opposed by Sir Charles Lyell in his book principles of geology. Lyell mention in his book, that earths surface is constantly undergoing changes, as a result of the unvarying operation of natural forces. As time progress, Darwin found himself apt to Lyells viewpoint. However, He soon realized that some of his examination of living plants and creature posed great doubt to those of Lyell. Lyell maintained that species were created differently. He further mentions that the remains of extinct species resemble those of living species in the same geographical area (The influence of Darwin on psychology). Although, he had difficulty accepting his own philosophy, his work found favour in the eyes of Charles Darwin (All about Science). Moreover, his works found a source of believe some billions years ago. However, Darwin theory of evolution, did not propose any time frame until he em brace Lyell old earth theories (All about Science). Most scientists accepted Lyell theory because it provides rational explanation and details. Yet those explanation were considered evidence, and even today scientist used Lyell geological explanation with no major questioning. Darwin accepted Lyell work hold heartedly, because it gives him a clear instinct of his beliefs. At one point Lyell retaliated against the theory of geology, because he believed that theory depicts a biased and construal setting of the scripture Genesis (Sir Charles Lyell). Alfred Binet Alfred Binet was French psychology, who was known for success in intelligent testing. In the 1889 Binet discovered the first psychological research laboratory in France. As director of the laboratory, he attempted to develop experimental technique that would measure rational thinking and intelligence. During the 1900s the French government (History of intelligence testing) contacted Binet, seeking his help to develop a theory that would differentiate the difference between mental incompetence and mental stability. As result the said government pass an amendment bill that requires the present of all children in school. Hence the reason was to identify their specialities and to group them according to their learning abilities. With the help of his co-worker, psychologist Theodore Simon, he was able to devise a test that would measure the mental capacity of children. This approach was known as the Binet-Simon scale. After the development of the Binet-Simon scale, the test was soon brought to the United States where it generated considerable interest (History of intelligence testing). Lewis Terman a psychologist at the standard university used Alfred Binet testing to conduct his own survey, the outcome of his finding was known as Stanford-Binet intelligent scale, soon after it was initially change to standard intelligent testing. The Stanford-Binet intelligent testing is conducted by trained professionals, who known how to administered the examination and secure the answers. The method designed to compute the IQ score is dividing mental age by the actual chronological age of the individual taking the examination and then multiply it by 100. For example if an 8year old scores a mental age of 12 her IQ given to her would be 150i;e 1Q of 150(8/12x 100). Although this initiative is accurate in children it does not compute will for adults. Intelligent testing Sir Francis Galton Francis Galton was a British Scientist, who laid the foundation of eugenics. He was also related to Charles Darwin. As result he was the first to acknowledge Darwins evolutionary theory, after he read the book the origins of species. Galton soon became interested in heredity and the measurement of humans; He collected various statistical data on height, dimensions and other characteristics of human beings. Base on quantitative studies of prominent individuals and their family trees, he concluded that intellectual ability is inherited in much the same way as physicals traits and he later published his finding in heredity (Sir Francis Galton). Galton strongly believed that the nature of intelligence have led him to inspire the thoughts, that society should encourage the upper class to replenish the earth , while the lower class refrain from doing so. During the mid 19 century eugenics was seen considered social Darwinism. Social Darwinism entails the struggle for existence and survival of the fittest. When applied to humanity it simply suggest the rich are wealthy off than the poor, and more successful in life. The controversy between the rich and poor permits the continual development of the species in orderly and timely manner, thus contributing to better society. Galton conduct a further probe to investigate the difference between the effects of heredity and those of environment ( Sir Francis Galton ). Base on his finding he was able to detect how education and environmental factors influence our mental ability. Galton continues to recognize heredity as prominent influence, regardless of his finding. Galton was among the first scientist to study twins, who had been separated from each other as means offering insight into the nature -nurture controversy (Sir Francis Galton). They contribution made by Galton provides valuable so urce for both psychologist and educators.

Thursday, September 19, 2019

Background Info - creating an IT system. :: Computer Science

Background Info - creating an IT system. BACKGROUND INFO --------------- Sir Alex Ferguson is the manager of Manchester United Football club. As in any football club transfers play a big part. Clubs usually contact each other to enquire about the availability of certain players and to request the transfer prices. Being Manchester United, one of the best football clubs in the world, several calls are received each day about players, since all the players are such high quality. The way the system currently works is that all calls regarding transfers are sent to Sir Alex, since all the players are his and he has to deal with the transfer request, which involves him having to contact the other clubs back with transfer prices and answers about the availability of certain players. PROBLEM Sir Alex is tired of other clubs hassling him all the time to find out about his players and feels he is wasting a lot of precious time dealing with transfers. He is especially getting annoyed because a lot of transfers are set up and then broken down. Sir Alex is looking for a way for the managers of other clubs to find out about his players without continually bothering him so he can concentrate more on things like training and tactics so that Manchester United can try and have a successful campaign. This is where I come into it. Sir Alex Ferguson and the Manchester United board have hired me to come up with a new more efficient system that would allow the managers of other clubs to find out information about the availability of his players and the transfer prices, which would allow them to make their own decisions and then they can contact the club when they feel they are certain they want a certain player. The end users are the managers of other clubs. POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS So after discussions with the board and Sir Alex, I come up with a few possible solutions: Hiring new staff as representatives for the club, to talk to all the other clubs: The way this would work is Sir Alex would make notes about which players are available and give a transfer price for each player. New staff would then be hired to operate the telephones and would all possess a copy of these notes made by Sir Alex. When a club then rang to enquire about certain players they would then use the notes to inform the other club if the player they want is available and give their transfer price. If a club is totally serious about making a bud for the player the call will then be transferred to Sir

Wednesday, September 18, 2019

Isolation in The Scarlet Letter Essay -- Scarlet Letter essays

Isolation in The Scarlet Letter      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the New Testament it states that "the wages of sin is death." Though the penalty of sin in The Scarlet Letter is not a termination of life, the evil of isolation can be a physically, morally, and socially tortuous event in Puritan society. Hester Prynne and Arthur Dimmesdale, in Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter, are both victims of the cruel isolation from Puritan society on the basis of their sins. Hester wears her sin upon her breast where it stands as a constant reminder of her malfeasance. Shame and isolation strip her of all passion and femininity, leaving her a shell of her former self. Though Arthur's mark of shame is not visible, it is all the more tortuous for its absence. Shame and guilt feed upon Arthur's soul with slow malevolency. Only a combination of death and confession finally release Arthur from his torture.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Though Hester's ostracism from society and the tortuous nature of her shame, Hester is stripped of all passion and humanity. Since society ...

Tuesday, September 17, 2019

Personal Reflection on the Loss of my Aunt

I have been very lucky in that I have not suffered the loss of an immediate family member or significant other; however, I have suffered the loss of a family member that was incredibly important to me during my childhood and with whom I was particularly close: my aunt. In this paper, I discuss this loss and my own process of grief.I present this process more-or-less chronologically, bringing up relevant theories of loss along the way. When I was young, my family lived a short distance away from my aunt and her family. Her son, my cousin, was about the same age as me, and we spent a lot of time together.During the summers, I was at their house every day, and we took extended vacations together every summer. During the school year, weekends were spent at her house, and it was often she who picked me up from school. Because we spent so much time together, we developed quite a close relationship. Later on, my family moved, but I called my aunt at least once a week, and I spent as much ti me as possible with her. In addition to being my godmother, she easily became my confidant, someone who I could talk to about anything, and I loved being able to spend time with her.The bad news about her diagnosis with cancer (a rare form of leukaemia) came when I was 13. The entire family rallied behind her. When she tried a macrobiotic diet, we all joined her. When doctors suggested a bone marrow transplant, everyone who was eligible got tested to see if they were a match. When she needed frequent blood transfusions, we all got our blood tested to see if our blood would be better for her than the supply in the blood bank. Throughout this whole process, the thought that my aunt could die never crossed my mind.I never even considered it as a possibility: even when she lost all her hair from chemotherapy, even when she lost too much weight, even when she was incredibly pale from anaemia. It is quite possible that my uncle, her primary caregiver, suffered from anticipatory grief, or grief suffered in anticipation of death. Mallon (2008) remarked that this type of grief can be experienced by the person who is dying as well as their family. When I moved away from home, I still talked to my aunt frequently. Every time I talked to her, she sounded in such good health.The last time I talked to her, she was being very active and had taken up playing tennis. I called her for her birthday, but she wasn’t home, so I left her a message on her answering machine wishing her happy birthday and saying that I would call her back. My life was very hectic at that time, and I didn’t get a chance to call her for a couple of days. Three days after her birthday, my mom called me and told me that my aunt was in the hospital with internal bleeding. She told me that it was serious and that I should try to come home to see my aunt. I got off the phone and bought a plane ticket for the next day.I called my mom back to tell her when I would arrive, and as I was talking to h er, she received the news that my aunt had died. I was in complete shock. I could not understand how this could have happened. I was on the phone with my mom, and I couldn’t say anything. One of my first reactions was feeling guilt. I felt so guilty for thinking that all my little stresses were so important that I couldn’t take five minutes to call my aunt and wish her a happy birthday. I wondered if my aunt knew how much I loved her and how much she meant to me. My mom stayed on the phone with me as long as she could, but she had other phone calls to make.I was geographically distanced from my family, and all I wanted to do was be with people who had known my aunt, who understood what a wonderful person she was, and who knew how much she meant to me. I called some friends, and they came over to keep me company. I am very grateful that they were there for me, but at the time, all I could think about was how much I wanted to be with my family. The next day, I flew to my aunt’s home town for the funeral. The whole extended family was there as were about a hundred of the people who knew her well. Because she was cremated, there was no visitation.While I respect this decision for cremation, I would have very much appreciated the chance to see my aunt one last time. At the church, in place of the coffin, there was a framed picture of my aunt in front of the urn carrying her ashes. The service was very personalized. Even if I had not considered the fact that my aunt might die, she and my uncle had put a lot of thought into her memorial service. They had chosen music that had meaning for them, including the song they first danced to at their wedding. This personalized service falls in line with a characteristic of modern-day Western memorials cited by Valentine (2006).The author mentions qualitative research that has shown that these memorials are â€Å"often creative and highly idiosynchratic [sic], reflecting the tastes and the emotions of the family involved† (Bradbury, 2001, p. 221; cited in Valentine, 2006). During the service, I noticed a lot of different grieving styles. Some, like myself, cried a lot. Others, like my grandmother, made a concerted effort not to cry (or at least not to let anyone see them cry). My grandmother actually wore sunglasses in the church so that no one could see her tears. At the time, I wondered why she did not want anyone to witness her sorrow.After all losing a child (even one who is grown up) must be one of the greatest losses one could experience. Immediately after the service, there was a reception at the church. All of my aunt’s friends and colleagues from her work came and introduced themselves to the family and spoke about how wonderful a person my aunt was. At the time, I found this ritual to be a bit strange. I wanted to go back to her house and be with my family. Looking back on this experience, however, I see that these people wanted us to know how influential a pe rson my aunt was outside of the context in which we best knew her.They also wanted to be there to support us in our time of sorrow. Now, I am very appreciative of their kind thoughts. When we returned to my aunt’s house, I noticed a huge collection of butterflies flying around her front porch. This was such an odd occurrence that I now always associate butterflies with my aunt. Whenever I see a butterfly, I think of my aunt and imagine that she is watching over me. This association came later in the grieving process and is an example of what has been termed continuing bonds. At the house, someone had laid out plates and plates of food.There was even more food (including seven hams) in the refrigerator and freezer. At the time, the last thing any of us could think about was eating, and I thought how bizarre it is that when someone dies, friends and neighbours rush over with casseroles and hams. After reflecting upon this experience, it seems that this is their way of showing t hey care. While they cannot really do anything to ease our suffering, they can at least ensure that the family has all of their material needs so that they can focus their attention on the grieving process.The family gathered around albums of photos. We told stories about my aunt. This reminiscing meant a lot to me. At last, I had a chance to talk to people who knew my aunt. We told stories about all of the great summer vacations, about all of the times my aunt caught us kids doing things we weren’t supposed to be doing, about all of her volunteer work, about all of the kids she had mentored, about what she was like as a young girl, about how she met my uncle, and about how she and my mom became best friends. All of these stories were very therapeutic for me.They gave me further knowledge about my aunt and solidified my conception of her as being a defining influence on my life. Although I wasn’t quite ready to accept the fact that she was gone, I was beginning to real ize that she would never really be gone because her existence had marked me as a person. How I lived my life was a reflection of her. Without her, I would not be who I am now. The way in which I look at this is another example of a continuing bond, though this one is more intangible than the butterflies mentioned above.Now that I am fully able to embrace this idea, I feel that I have moved through the grieving process, at least for the primary loss of my aunt. I still have not, however, fully dealt with the secondary loss. After my aunt’s death, my uncle (my godfather) distanced himself from our family. Perhaps we remind him too much of his wife. Perhaps he feels that he has no connection to us without her as she was our blood relative. I, however, will always consider him to be part of my family, and I am a bit angry that he doesn’t want to continue having a relationship with me.Valentine (2006) remarks that bereavement has been traditionally marginalized and that the primary goal of grief counselling has been the severing of ties and attachments with the deceased. This is the type of thought that underlies many of the different â€Å"stages of grief† theories. One example of a â€Å"stages of grief theory† is that of Kubler-Ross. Kubler-Ross (1997) developed a five-stage model for the grief process: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. Another example is Parkes’s three phases of grief, modelled on the four-phase model of Bowlby.Each of these theories seems to conceive of grief as a linear process: there are stages that an individual must pass through on the way to accepting, or adjusting to, their loss. For me at least, these theories do not describe my own experience of dealing with grief. For example, I never passed through the denial, anger, and bargaining phases of Kubler-Ross’s model. One model that resonates well with my own experiences is Bowlby’s four stages of grief (1980). In an ear lier work, Bowlby outlined his theory of attachment, whereby individuals develop emotional bonds with others.Death disrupts this attachment bond, and the bereaved then passes through four phases: numbness and disbelief, yearning and searching, disorganization and despair, and reorganization (Bowbly, 1980). In my experience, I had definitely developed an attachment bond with my aunt. When my mom first told me that my aunt had died, I was in disbelief. I began to pass through the second stage immediately after the funeral. At first I was not able to sit still, I simultaneously wanted to be in my aunt’s home with my family and to walk in the woods around her house alone.All of the reminiscing my family did gave me an outlet for my preoccupations with thoughts of my aunt. Once I returned home, her death really hit me (stage three). I was once again geographically distanced from my family, and I was beginning to realize that I would never have the chance to talk to my aunt again, to ask for advice, and to go for walks on the beach. Eventually, I was able to get to stage four through the acknowledgment of continuing bonds. Klass, Silverman, and Nickman (1996) presented the idea of continuing bonds.This model contrasts traditional notions of bereavement in that it does not emphasize completely detaching oneself from the deceased. By creating continuing bonds, the bereaved can continue to have a sort of relationship with their loved one after death. For me, I have developed two continuing bonds with my aunt. The first is whenever I see a butterfly, I think of my aunt and imagine her looking out for me. These moments allow me to reflect, at least briefly, on the course of my life and question whether I am holding to the ethical and moral principles she instilled in me.The second continuing bond is related to the first. I acknowledge the fact that part of who I am is a result of her influence. I know the kind of person she was, and I turned to her so many times f or advice, that I can still hear her voice inside my head and I know what she would say to me. Both of these continuing bonds illustrate Klass, Silverman, and Nickman’s (1996) concept of continuing bonds as active relationships, as opposed to static memories. In conclusion, grieving is a complex process that every individual will experience differently.An individual’s process will be determined by their relationship with the deceased, the support of family and friends, cultural and societal factors, and how they are able to re-interpret their relationship with the deceased. Scholars from many different fields have developed different models for the grieving process. For me, the model that fit the best was Bowlby’s attachment theory and four phases of grief. Continuing bonds, as described by Klass, Silverman, and Nickman, was essential for me to move through the grieving process.ReferencesBowlby, J. (1980). Loss: Sadness & Depression. London: Hogarth Press. Hooym an, N. R. & Kramer, B. J. (2006).Living through Loss: Interventions across the Life Span. New York: Columbia University Press. Klass, D. , Silverman, P. R. , & Nickman, S. Continuing Bonds: New Understandings of Grief. London: Taylor & Francis. Kubler-Ross, E. (1997).On Death and Dying. New York: Scribner. Mallon, B. (2008).Dying, Death and Grief. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Valentine, C. (2006).Academic constructions of bereavement. Mortality, 1 (11), 57-78.