The World Channel Tunnel Engineering Projects Construction Essay

The World Channel Tunnel Engineering Projects Construction Essay The Channel Tunnel (French: le tunnel sous la Manche), widely recognized as one of the worlds greatest civil engineering projects, is a 50.5km underwater rail tunnel connecting Folkestone, Kent in the UK with Coquelles, Pas-de-Calais in France under the English Channel. Even though it began construction in 1988 and was opened in 1994, the idea to have a cross-channel tunnel was first mooted more than 200 years ago but did not materialize due to political, national security and cost considerations. However, with the tremendous increase in traffic growth, better and alternative means of communication, convenience and speed was necessary and hence the need for an alternative transport route was clearly evident. The need for such tunnel was further compounded with Britain joining the European Community and the cross-channel traffic doubling in the last 20 years (leading to the project), reflecting improved trading between the Britain and rest of Europe. The Channel Tunnel would also be a ble to provide an alternative competitive link between the transportation systems of the UK and France, providing both speed and reliability to freight deliveries. With the strong endorsement from the governments of both sovereigns, the decision to build the Channel Tunnel was thus made. In April 1985, the British and French governments issued a formal invitation to potential tenderers for the fixed Channel link and eventually the contract was awarded to the consortium Channel Tunnel Group Limited- France Manche S.A. (CTG/FM) (later renamed Eurotunnel). Figure 1: Project Organization The Channel Tunnel, with the governments intention that it be privately funded and there would not be any government assistance or undertaking, was a build-own-operate-transfer (B-O-O-T) project with a concession. The project organization is shown in Figure 1. In this contract arrangement, Eurotunnel would be the owner cum operator, which was being funded by the banks and shareholders. The governments of UK and France were represented by the Inter-Governmental Commission (IGC), to which the Safety Authority and the Maitre dOeuvre (an independent technical auditor) would report to. The IGC would then make final engineering and safety decisions. TML (essentially split from CTG/FM so as to separate the roles of owner/operator and contractor) consisted mainly of five British contractors (Translink Joint Venture) and five French contractors (G.I.E Transmanche Construction) and would carry out the construction works for the Channel Tunnel in a design and build contract. Upon completion of the project, the British and French governments would award Eurotunnel a 55 (which was later revised to 65) year operating concession to repay the banks and shareholders. The Contract was officially signed on 13 August 1986 and the fixed rail was to be fully commissioned in 1993. The services offered by the Channel Tunnel include the Eurotunnel Shuttle (a shuttle service for vehicles), Eurostar passenger trains and freight delivery trains. TMLs contract was to design, build, and test and commission the fixed rail tunnel. The Channel Tunnel (Figure 2) was designed to have three concrete-lined bores approximately 50km long, with 37.9km undersea and the rest under land at either ends of the English (Cheriton near Folkstone) and French (Pas-de-Calais village of Frethun) terminals (Figure 3). Two of the running tunnels were designed to have an internal diameter of 7.6m while the third was a 4.8m service tunnel running midway between the two and connected to them via 3.3m diameter cross passages at 375m intervals. 2m diameter piston relief ducts connecting the main tunnels at 250m spacing were built to prevent the accumulation of differential air pressures and aerodynamic resistance. To facilitate operations and maintenance, four crossover caverns were built between the two terminals to allow trains to cross between the running tunnels. Two crossovers were laid close to the terminals while the other two were under the seabed , effectively dividing the tunnel into three approximately equal lengths. Figure 4 below shows the main phases of the project. Two separate rail tunnels were chosen instead of a single large twin-track rail tunnel because this could minimize construction risk while at the same time enhance operations, maintenance and safety. The diameters were finalized after design analysis, development and optimization studies, taking into consideration the operation and support, speed and cost of construction. The service tunnel provided access between the running tunnels during normal and emergency situations and was equipped with a guided transport system. It was also where the water and pumping mains run and functioned as a fresh air supply duct to the tunnels in normal working condition. In addition, the service tunnel would function as a lead tunnel during construction which allowed the workers and engineers to assess and ascertain the uncharted ground conditions before advancing the main tunnels. Basing on the existing geotechnical investigations, past tunneling expeditions and two additional geotechnical and geophysical surveys carried out by TML on the English Channel along the proposed tunnel line, it was ascertained that there was a distinct sub-unit of the Lower Chalk layer known as the Chalk Marl running continuously between the two terminals. Chalk Marl, made up of alternating bands of marly chalk and limestone, was found to be the best tunneling medium as it was essentially impermeable (due to its high clay content) and provided good short term stability under excavation, thus minimizing the number of supports required (Figure 5). It was designed to be bored in the bottom 15m of the Chalk Marl layer to minimize the ingress of water from the fractures and joints, but above the Gault clay which is susceptible to swelling when wet, imposing high stresses on the tunnel lining. The chalk marl strata dipped gently at less than 5o with smaller displacements of less than 2m d ue to faulting towards the UK side; whereas the strata dipped severely towards the French side (up to 20o) with much larger displacements of up to 15m (Gueterbock, 1992). Chalk at the French side was also harder, more brittle and fractured. This thus led to the use of different tunneling methods on the English and French sides. The seaward and landward bores for all three tunnels on the UK side began at Shakespeare Cliff. Construction traffic would enter the tunnel via a new inclined access (Adit A2) at the Lower Shakespeare site, while worker access was built via a shaft driven to the tunnel level from the Upper Shakespeare site (Gueterbock, 1992). Due to the fast construction time required and the relatively dry chalk marl at the UK side, it was assessed that the New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM) was most suitable for the UK tunnels. One feature of the NATM was the interlinking of design, construction method, sequence and plant and the success of this method depended on the continuous integration of these elements by the tunneling engineers. Six TBMs were used to drive the UK tunnels spanning a total distance of 84km. The TBMs were operated on an open-face mode with a front excavating section and a rear gripper unit which acted as a temporary anchor point when the cutting head drove forward at 1.5m inc rements (Anderson Roskrow, 1994). Excavation of the tunnel and erection of the tunnel linings were carried out concurrently. Depending on ground conditions, the thickness of the linings ranged between 380mm and 500mm. Expanded concrete lining was used for the UK tunnels where the unbolted lining was expanded against the excavated ground. Pads on the back of the lining allowed the formation of an annulus to be filled with grout to prevent water ingress (Byrd, 1996). Each 1.5m lining ring was made up of eight precast concrete segments with a key segment. Cast iron lining segments were only used in poor ground conditions. Over at the other side, the tunnel drives started at the shaft in Sangatte in France. Due to the highly fissured ground resulting in very wet conditions on the French side, a different type of TBM known as the Earth Pressure Balance Machine was used. The TBMs were designed to operate both in open and closed modes. Close mode is characterized by the sealing off of the machine from the spoil around it and the cutting head, thus keeping pressure on the dirt in front as it excavated and allowing the machine to work in the dry as the pressure in the machine was higher than the outside. The arrangement of seals on the TBM allowed it to withstand up to 10 atmospheric pressures. When the TBMs reached dryer and more favourable grounds, they could then switch to open mode. While precast sections were also used on the French side, the materials used were different owing to the different soil conditions: neoprene and grout sealed bolted linings made of cast-iron and high strength concrete (Ander son Roskrow, 1994). The French tunnels were made of six 1.4 to 1.6m wide segments plus a key segment. A total of 5 TBMs were employed on the French side, and the bores from the UK and France were to finally meet in the middle of the English Channel in the tunnel breakthrough phase. The Channel Tunnel project was huge by any standard, with a number of key factors that could potentially impact the parties involved: bi-nationality, private funding (thereby effectively transferring most of the financial risks to the contractors), schedule and cost. To stay attractive to investors and banks alike, the project had to meet the following priorities: minimum risk of cost overrun, minimum operating cost and maximum traffic revenue. It was recognized, from the outset, that the main challenge of the project was to resolve the logistical support associated with large scale tunneling and the fast-track nature of this project. The management, finance and technical challenges related to this project would be explored in the subsequent paragraphs.

Benedict Arnolds Treason Essay -- essays research papers

After defeating British troops in Saratoga, Congress made Benedict Arnold a major general in the Continental Army. Washington wrote a commendation saying that Arnold was a brave officer. Despite the promotion, Arnold remained at the bottom of the list. There were four other major generals superior to him. Arnold was soon off once again to help the northern army. Ticonderoga had fallen back into enemy hands. British General John Burgoyne and his troops were moving rapidly down from Canada toward Albany. Arnold fell under the leadership of General Horatio Gates. Arnold and Gates were complete opposites. Gates appeared cautious and calculating while Benedict was persistent and hasty. Gates held position on an area overlooking the Hudson River. His plan was to wait for an attack. He knew that the British were low on supplies from their long march from Canada and planned on using that to his advantage. Arnold disagreed, urging Gates to attack General Burgoyne during his progress. However, Gates didn’t trust Benedict or believe in his tactics. Once the battle begun there was no holding back. Disobeying Gates orders, Arnold led a furious attack. Upon the barrage of bullets swarming the battlefield, Arnold was shot in the leg. Ironically this was the same leg that had been wounded in t he battle at Montreal. Thanks to Arnold’s valiant effort General Burgoyne and his men were faced with retreating. Over six hundred British soldiers were killed. On October 16, General Burgoyne surrendered his sword to General Gates, instead of Arnold. This had disgruntled Arnold greatly, given that it was his brilliant, tactical assessment that forced the British army to surrender. This had made the victory bittersweet threw his perspective. Following the battle, Arnold lay in an Albany hospital for three months. Arnold left the hospital with a â€Å"fracture box† around his bad leg. Gates distort over Arnold’s disobedience stripped him of his rank. However, the Continental Congress restored his rank as a reward for Arnold’s spirited efforts. After Ticonderoga, Arnold was having problems getting reimbursements from Congress for his expenses. Unfortunately, Arnold lacked receipts for those purchases. Arnold felt his loyalty and honor were in question given that Congress was slow to react to Arnold’s claim. Soon after Washington requested that Arnold come to Valley Forge to converse his ... ...d to the point. He remitted Arnold a draft of 6,000 pounds. Generous as the British were to Arnold, they never completely trusted him as an officer in their service. Though he conducted a raid into Virginia and led the tragic expedition to New London, the British declined to give him a high command. After Cornwallis’ surrender at Yorktown, Arnold took his family to London, where he received both respect and admiration, but no employment. Later, he moved to Canada- to St. John, New Brunswick and entered the shipping business. Eventually, Arnold moved his family back to London and tried to secure command when the war with revolutionary France broke out. Denied an opportunity to return to military, he traded with the West Indies, where he was greatly appreciated. Rejected once more in an effort to help the military, Arnold died in 1801, forlorn and almost forgotten in Britain. His wife out lived him by three years, but had the satisfaction of seeing her children have respectable careers and attain mild fame. If none has achieved such military importance as their ancestor, the tireless â€Å"Dark Eagle† as the Indians called him, none has put self-interest or injured pride before honor.

Democracy Vs Dictatorship :: essays research papers

Imagine the next time you step into the voting booth your ballot only lists one candidate to choose from. Or perhaps your ballot lists four candidates, but they are all from the Liberal party. Dictatorships are one party political systems that are ruled by one leader or an elite group of people under the principle of authoritarianism. Some feel that dictatorships are the most effective form of government because decisions are made quickly and extreme nationalism benefits the military and economy. These individuals value order, nationalism, and authority. However, these systems often result in violence, repression of the public, and few provisions for changes to the system. Democracies are multiparty political systems that rest on the principle of rule by the people. Most people that live in democracies have civil liberties1, and political rights2. Individuals who feel that multiparty systems are the best government value equality, accountability, and freedom. Nations that have multi party political systems will meet the needs of the public better through the means of political equality, a higher standard of living3, and civil liberties. Dictatorships often occur when a nation is economically and politically unstable. An example of this is Napoleon’s coup d’ etat in 1799 France. In a system of authoritarian rule decisions are made efficiently because very few people are involved in the decision making process. The leader or elite group at the head of the government decides on new policies and economic measures, then makes sure that the public abides by them by using tactics of force and indoctrination. Dictatorial systems have helped nations recover from economic turmoil many times in the past. The extreme nationalism that is born from propaganda and government sponsored youth organizations encourages people to work harder for the benefit of their country. Newly motivated work forces easily meet their production goals. If the leader of a dictatorship is capable the country can rise to hold a great amount of international power. Building up the military is an important step to gain power. A strong milita ry will discourage other countries from attacking and also discourage the citizens of the country from rebelling. The force of nationalism, and new laws that can be easily passed regarding education (such that every male of a certain age must serve time in the military) allow military strength of dictatorships to multiply. The Soviet Union experienced a dictatorial system from 1917 to 1985.

The History of the American Education System: A look at the 1900s Essay

The History of the American Education System: A look at the 1900s The dawn of the 1900s brought with it progressive education. With a growing population due to an influx of immigrants, many cities decided to build more schools. Chicago was one such city. Before 1889, the city of Chicago had only five high schools. By 1990, the Chicago Board of Education had developed the Chicago Normal School, 15 high schools and 234 elementary schools. These schools provided not only education for students but also job opportunities for many individuals. This dramatic change opened up positions for 5,709 teachers (filled by 394 men and 5,315 women), who were paid about $325 per year. In 1990, there was a total of 255,861 students enrolled in public schools in Chicago. 244,962 of these were enrolled in elementary schools, 10,241 enrolled in high school, 497 in normal school and 188 in the school for the deaf. Average attendance that year was about 199,821. (School attendance officially became compulsory in every U.S. state in 1918.) In high schools, there was an average of 33.9 students per teacher. An average of 42.7 students per teacher characterized the elementary schools in the district. In June of 1990, 1,249 students graduated from Chicago public high schools. Maria Montessori opened the first Montessori school in 1907. She is credited as being a pioneer in the field of education for developing such tools as â€Å"classrooms without walls, manipulative learning materials, teaching toys and programmed instruction,† (Family Education 2004). In 1921, the National Education Association (together with the American Legion) sponsored the... ...virginia.edu/photo/education.html. Sandholtz, Judith Haymore. (2004). Teachers, Not Technicians: Rethinking Technical Expectations for Teachers. Teachers College Record. 106(3), 487-513. Retrieved April 21, 2004, from Academic Search/EBSCO database. Schugurensky, D. (March 2003). History of Education – Selected Moments of the 20th Century. Retrieved March 20, 2004 from http://fcis.oise.utoronto.ca/~daniel_schugurensky/assignment1/. Whitfield, Patricia. (2004). Teachers as â€Å"Healers†: 21st-Cenutry Possibility? Or Necessity? Multicultural Perspectives, 6(1), 43-51. Retrieved April 21, 2004, from Academic Search/EBSCO database. Whitley, Peggy. (2003, July) American Cultural History. Retrieved April 21, 2004 from http://kclibrary.nhmccd.edu/decade90.html

Reflective Journal

One of my strengths is inquiring. I’m usually the one in a group questioning everything like â€Å"How did this happen? † or â€Å"What is the meaning of†¦. † I also like to know a lot of information on a subject before I consider doing anything with it. I’m a very curious person and sometimes I’ll look at things from a different and new perspective to see what it’s like. I do this because I really enjoy seeing things from new different angles and comparing the two different point of views. This helps me better understand someone else’s view on something.For example if a friend and I are in an argument, I’ll try to wear their shoes and see their side. I also like to know why certain things have importance and value. I point out and question key facts and points to see why exactly it is of such significance. One of my weaknesses is Critical Thinking. I’m alright at it but I know I could do better and could use some im provement. I love thinking; I do it all the time†¦sometimes even too much. I’m great at thinking about problems and solving them. Although sometimes when I read a story or question that is very long and full of ideas, I may get lost in my tracks and not figure out the main point.It becomes a bit challenging for me because I can’t focus on one idea or thought. I think this is because I’m such a curious guy and I keep on jumping from thoughts and conclusion. Another weakness of mine is that I am not a risk taker. I always choose the rational and logical option and never take a little chance on something different. I know sometimes taking a risk pays off big, but unfortunately there are also times when it doesn’t. I’m always curious about what it would’ve been like if I took a risk. I think I never take risks because I fear that if I fail the damage may be hard.I usually take the path that has less damage possible. Another one of my streng ths is being very reflective. It’s a very important skill to have because if we never look back at what we have done and the mistakes we have made, we would probably continually make the same mistake. I think I reflect every night before I fall asleep in my bed. I think â€Å"Oh, maybe I shouldn’t have done that,† or â€Å"Yeah that was a funny moment. † I always reflect on my past and on others past. I like to reflect on the past because it helps me see if I made a mistake somewhere so I can keep myself from doing it again.Reflecting helps you see what you’ve missed before, and learn from your past. I know I’m only supposed to mention two strengths but I feel I have another really good one. It’s being a very good communicator. I’m a very social person and I know how speak properly at time and how to explain things if needed. I can also understand someone who doesn’t really explain something great and help them out. I ma y not use all the correct words but I do get the point across. I enjoy public speaking and entertaining, telling a joke here and there. I do have more strengths and weaknesses but those are my main ones. Reflective Journal Reflective Journal Detailed description as if to an outsider. Often you will use your journal to record detailed descriptions of some aspect of your internship environment, whether physical, behavioral, or organizational. When you write them, you will not have a clear idea of what you will make of these details, but you will sense that they might be important later. These descriptions should sound as if you were describing them to someone who was never there. Journals allow you to sound naive. At times you will want to speculate as to why something that you have observed firsthand is as it is.You might derive your explanation from a lecture you have heard, a book you have read, or your own reservoir of â€Å"common sense†. Having posited an interpretation, you will want to continue with your detailed observations on the topic to see if you want to stick with your hypothesis or alter it. Journals allow you to change your mind. Here are a few of the ingredients that go into a ke eping a great journal: * Journals should be snapshots filled with sights, sounds, smells, concerns, insights, doubts, fears, and critical questions about issues, people, and, most importantly, yourself. Honesty is the most important ingredient to successful journals. * A journal is not a work log of tasks, events, times and dates. * Write freely. Grammar/spelling should not be stressed in your writing until the final draft. * Write an entry after each visit. If you can’t write a full entry, jot down random thoughts, images, etc. which you can come back to a day or two later and expand into a colorful verbal picture. Key questions to answer Describe your experience.What would you change about this situation if you were in charge? How have you challenged yourself, your ideals, your philosophies, your concept of life or of the way you live? Was there a moment of failure, success, indecision, doubt, humor, frustration, happiness, sadness? Do you feel your actions had any impact? What more needs to be done? Does this experience compliment or contrast with what you’re learning in class? How? Has learning through experience taught you more, less, or the same as the class? In what ways? Reflective Journal Lecture 3 1. Did you learn anything in the session or reading material that surprised, impressed, or shocked you? If so what? And why did it have that effect on you? During the lecture, Sam introduced the origin of homosexuality. According to two British researchers, Wilson and Rahman, genetic factor is also a determinant of sexual orientation. I was quite surprised because I used to think that the homosexuality was mainly the result of the environmental factor. For example, some girls were born in a single parent family and the lack of a father makes them feel very protective of their family members.Then, they would take up the role of male and become the support of the family. I always wondered why they had to choose to be a gay/lesbian, who has to go through many difficult times as a result of discrimination by the â€Å"normal people†. I thought the homosexual had a choice to decide who they are. Indeed, I was wrong. I did not realize till I saw the research that some of t hem were born to be a homosexual. It is not up to them whether they could live an easier life. So, I just learnt that they are just being who they are and it is not their fault to be who they were born to be.I was so shocked by the behaviors of some homophobia. Isolation and teasing are common to the homosexual people. But I never realize that their life is under threat too. I feel sorry for them when I know that some of the minority were executed because of their sexual orientation. 2. How did you respond (as an individual) to Sarah? How are her lived experiences different from yours? Do you think of her sexual orientation as normal or abnormal? .. acceptable or unacceptable? .. different or deviant? .. healthy or sick? Do you believe she is living out a life choice?Be prepared to explain your views Personally I have no special feeling for lesbians because I think there isn’t really a huge difference between us except that they prefer their partner to be a girl but I like gu ys more. It is similar to the various tastes of different people. Some of them may prefer Japanese cuisine, some other may like Thai more while others may want fast food. Although Sarah has a sexual orientation different from mine, I feel that is absolutely normal. Like I said, it is just a matter of preference. Indeed, for most of the people, the behaviors of the majority eans normal behavior and the rest are regarded as abnormal, which also implies ill deep inside â€Å"normal† people’s mind. Personal judgement is involved. Many people find homosexuality abnormal and unacceptable because their behaviors and sexual orientation are different from the â€Å"normal†. I reckon that so long as the homosexuals are ok with themselves and they do not harm the others, we should not say anything about their personal choice. Why is there such a huge gap of the responses of people towards the choice of the type of food and gay/lesbian’s sexual orientation?It is beca use those people, in particular typical Chinese, think that the homosexual affects the core value of a family, which is the next generation as they cannot reproduce. So, homosexuality is usually suppressed to allow the extension of families. But then, more and more heterosexuals are choosing not to have babies. Even for homosexual couples, they can extend the family by adopting child. Basically, the collapse of a family should not be an excuse to deter them from staying with someone they love. People need to open up their mind towards variances. Homosexuality is a fact that they cannot deny.It has already existed for a very long period of time, even back in 237AD in the imperial China. May they destroy the flowers and yet they cannot stop the spring. We should accept it to promote harmony in society. After all, homosexual also contribute to society like we â€Å"normal people† do and we should respect them like the way we respect the others. Lecture 4 What can a government do to recognize sexual health as a basic human right According to the World Health Organization, sexual health is a state of physical, mental and social well-being in relation to sexuality.A Government is responsible for upholding its people’s human rights. So, it should carry out both preventive measures and treatment to help to protect sexual health. Currently, our Government is doing well in some aspects of sexual health, for example education of AIDS, provision of support of AIDS patients, sex & reproductive health of woman. The action of Government shows its recognition on sexual health as basic human right it upholds. Here are some examples. Concerning sexual health, AIDS has been one of the diseases that catch most attention. It is a destructive disease with no cure at the moment.There are more than 36 million people carrying HIV and 15000 people become infected with HIV in every 24 hours. (Klesius, 2011). 50% of the patients infected with HIV would develop AIDS if there is no proper treatment. Those people’s lives are at stake due to vulnerability and high susceptibility to infections. Being aware of the high infectiousness and the bad consequences of AIDS, the Government has put huge effort in combating the disease through promotion. For example, there are talks for students, imparting the knowledge about AIDS and advertisement on TV about prevention.The effort has been rewarded as the number of newly infected with HIV case has dropped by more than 20% from 2007 to 2011, according to HK Government’s report. Yet, solely education is not enough because the Government has to take care of the infected too. More resources should be allocated to research to find out cure for AIDS, for example, potential HIV vaccines. (Klesius, 2011). Apart from the AIDS, the Government has also reacted to some alarming sexual health phenomenon, for instance the declining age of the patients of cervical cancer.It is now offering subsidies for the injection of HPV vaccines, which offer more than 90% protection for women against HPV types 16 and 18 infections and their related cervical precancerous lesions and cervical cancer. The action marks the Government’s attitude towards sexual health as a basic right. However, protecting people’s physical health is not the sole mission for the Government but also the mental health. So far, it seems to ignore the mental health of the minorities, like LGBT. This is revealed from the failure to fight against the discrimination in society, which hurts their mental health.More effort should be put to protect these minorities. The Government may start by education, not only for students, but also the public through advertisement, talks, forum to let them know more about LGBT and understand them. The Government should take the first step to open up its mind before it can open up the others. What can the LGBT community do to facilitate their sexual rights as human rights Curehelp them to i dentify what they really are After having learnt about homosexuality and its relevant issues, what can YOU do to help the LGBT community to achieve their basic human rights?The LGBT should be active to fight for and protect their sexual rights. After all, Hong Kong is a relatively conservative society, which is deeply affected by typical Chinese mindset. These sexual rights include the right to express their sexual identity, sexual orientation and equity. Unfairness to LGBT is common in our society. For example, according to Equal Opportunities Commission, people are protected discrimination by Sex Discrimination Ordinance (SDO). It is an anti-discrimination law passed in 1995, which declares discrimination on the ground of sex, marital status and pregnancy, and sexual harassment are unlawful.Both males and females are applicable. Yet, LGBT is not included in the group under protection. Till now, there is still no law against discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation. This i s obviously a kind of unfairness. So, the LGBT should communicate with the Government and express the need to draft the law, probably through media, email, or even demonstration to call for the Government’s recognition of sexual rights as basic human. Yet, the most effective way to facilitate the sexual right is actually to spread the message of equity in society and right the mindset of the public.Discrimination derives from ignorance. It is the misunderstanding of the people that leads to their behaviors. The LGBT community may make videos or organize forum to share their view or experience with the ordinary people, just like what Sarah did. This can facilitate the communication between the two parties and thus a better understanding among the two groups. The Government can also include the topic of homosexuality in sex education. The most important thing is to correct how ordinary people think about LGBT. By then will they stop the discrimination.After learning so much abo ut homosexuality, I think my greatest contribution to achieve their basic human right is to stop discriminate against them. In the past, I belong to one of those ignorant people and felt that they were weird and scared of them. But after learning so much about them, I understand them a bit more. When my family or friends act like what I did in the past, I will explain to them, saying that every one of us should be respected. I hope what I do can influence my family and friends and make them understand the importance of equity, which is the key for harmony.Hopefully, the influence can spread to friends of my friends and eliminate the discrimination against them. Lecture 5 1. Are people born heterosexual or homosexual, or does sexual orientation develop as they grow? ?2. What is the significance of the change of the terms from â€Å"homosexual† to â€Å"gay† to â€Å"queer†/â€Å"tongzhi†? ?3. How does homosexuality relate to identity politics? How does sex uality relate to politics For some homosexual people, their sexual orientation is inborn. A scientist D. F.Swaab found that a portion of the hypothalamus of the brain of homosexual male was structurally different than a heterosexual brain and hypothalamus is the portion of the human brain directly related to sexual drive and function. (Johnson. 2oo3). This may explain why some people are homosexual. It is just because they are born to be who they are. Yet, I personally believe that the modeling of parents could have some effect on the â€Å"heterosexuals†. They have been implanted with the thought that a boy should always date a girl since they were small and they end up become heterosexual.This is because they are educated to be heterosexual and they simply follow what they are told. However, I think for the majority, which is heterosexual, it is the natural phenomenon. Reproduction can only be carried out by the intercourse of opposite sex and it is the instinct of most hum an that they look for a partner of opposite sex for reproduction. However, I reckon that the above factors are not the only ones that determine the sexual orientation of people. Affection for the others is derived from his/her appearance, personalities, characters and inner beauty.People are attracted to no matter the same or the opposite sex maybe just due to these factors but not the gene or environment. It is simply a way how human express their love. So it is possible that homosexuality is developed as people grow. The change of terms marks an increasing awareness of people on the issue of homosexuality. In the pas, from 1920 to 1950, â€Å"homosexual†, which is relatively more clinical, was more frequently used and then changed to â€Å"gay† from 1950s onwards and to â€Å"queer† from 1990s till now. This suggests that homosexuality is becoming a topic that more and more people will discuss about.So the terms people are using are becoming less and less prof essional but more like a common language. It also reveals an increasing openness of society. This is because in the past the issue was severely suppressed that ordinary people could hardly touch. Now, people are more and more open-minded and the issue is not something prohibited anymore for most of the countries. So, the change of use of terms also represents a change of attitude towards homosexuality. Sexuality is related to politics in terms of the image of the leaders.Most of the leaders appeared to be heterosexual. But being homosexual is seen as being abnormal by most of people. Even leaders are homosexual, they seldom reveal it because this will imply the end of the life in politics. In addition, leaders are trying to be very careful about their personal sexual affairs because it is a potential threat to their power, just like the scandal of Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi. People, especially in a society of Chinese, do not only look at one’s ability to lead bu t also the impact of their personal matters on society.What the leaders do will have a profound impact on society because they are the ones who lead the people. Being heterosexual is a sign of being normal. People do not say it but this is what they think. To avoid a negative impression, â€Å"being normal† in terms of sexual orientation is what leaders do. Reference: Asia Times Online. (2011). In Hong Kong, a quiet advance for gay rights. Retrieved from http://www. atimes. com/atimes/China/MG15Ad01. html Centre of Health Protection. Cervical Cancer. (2011) Retrieved fromhttp://www. chp. gov. hk/en/content/9/25/56. html Equal Opportunities Commission. n. d. ). Sex Discrimination Ordinance and I. Retrieved from http://www. eoc. org. hk/eoc/GraphicsFolder/showcontent. aspx? content=Sex%20Discrimination%20Ordinance%20and%20I Johnson, R. D. (2003). Homosexuality: Nature or Nurture. AllPsych Journal. Klesius, M. (2011). Search for a Cure—AIDS Turns 20. National Geographic m agazine. The department of Health. Knowing about HIV. (2011). Retrieved from http://www. gov. hk/en/residents/health/sexedu/aids. htm Wikipedia. (n. d. ). LGBT rights in Hong Kong. Retrieved fromhttp://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Hong_Kong Reflective Journal Reflective Journal Detailed description as if to an outsider. Often you will use your journal to record detailed descriptions of some aspect of your internship environment, whether physical, behavioral, or organizational. When you write them, you will not have a clear idea of what you will make of these details, but you will sense that they might be important later. These descriptions should sound as if you were describing them to someone who was never there. Journals allow you to sound naive. At times you will want to speculate as to why something that you have observed firsthand is as it is.You might derive your explanation from a lecture you have heard, a book you have read, or your own reservoir of â€Å"common sense†. Having posited an interpretation, you will want to continue with your detailed observations on the topic to see if you want to stick with your hypothesis or alter it. Journals allow you to change your mind. Here are a few of the ingredients that go into a ke eping a great journal: * Journals should be snapshots filled with sights, sounds, smells, concerns, insights, doubts, fears, and critical questions about issues, people, and, most importantly, yourself. Honesty is the most important ingredient to successful journals. * A journal is not a work log of tasks, events, times and dates. * Write freely. Grammar/spelling should not be stressed in your writing until the final draft. * Write an entry after each visit. If you can’t write a full entry, jot down random thoughts, images, etc. which you can come back to a day or two later and expand into a colorful verbal picture. Key questions to answer Describe your experience.What would you change about this situation if you were in charge? How have you challenged yourself, your ideals, your philosophies, your concept of life or of the way you live? Was there a moment of failure, success, indecision, doubt, humor, frustration, happiness, sadness? Do you feel your actions had any impact? What more needs to be done? Does this experience compliment or contrast with what you’re learning in class? How? Has learning through experience taught you more, less, or the same as the class? In what ways? Reflective Journal Reflective Journal Detailed description as if to an outsider. Often you will use your journal to record detailed descriptions of some aspect of your internship environment, whether physical, behavioral, or organizational. When you write them, you will not have a clear idea of what you will make of these details, but you will sense that they might be important later. These descriptions should sound as if you were describing them to someone who was never there. Journals allow you to sound naive. At times you will want to speculate as to why something that you have observed firsthand is as it is.You might derive your explanation from a lecture you have heard, a book you have read, or your own reservoir of â€Å"common sense†. Having posited an interpretation, you will want to continue with your detailed observations on the topic to see if you want to stick with your hypothesis or alter it. Journals allow you to change your mind. Here are a few of the ingredients that go into a ke eping a great journal: * Journals should be snapshots filled with sights, sounds, smells, concerns, insights, doubts, fears, and critical questions about issues, people, and, most importantly, yourself. Honesty is the most important ingredient to successful journals. * A journal is not a work log of tasks, events, times and dates. * Write freely. Grammar/spelling should not be stressed in your writing until the final draft. * Write an entry after each visit. If you can’t write a full entry, jot down random thoughts, images, etc. which you can come back to a day or two later and expand into a colorful verbal picture. Key questions to answer Describe your experience.What would you change about this situation if you were in charge? How have you challenged yourself, your ideals, your philosophies, your concept of life or of the way you live? Was there a moment of failure, success, indecision, doubt, humor, frustration, happiness, sadness? Do you feel your actions had any impact? What more needs to be done? Does this experience compliment or contrast with what you’re learning in class? How? Has learning through experience taught you more, less, or the same as the class? In what ways?

A Cognitive Perspective on Trauma and Memory

The human mind is a complex and marvelous mechanism. Like the operating headquarters of a huge corporation, its functional distinctions are based on information processing based on thought, language, meaning and imagery (Bruning, Schraw & Ronning, 1999).In order to understand how trauma and cognition are related, we first need to acknowledge the workings of our memory (Bruning, Schraw & Ronning, 1999). Traditionally, theorists have divided memory processes into stages or models of the following: acquisition, storage, and retrieval (Bruning, Schraw & Ronning, 1999).   These models came to be known as information processing models that govern the following: sensory, short-term memory and long-term memory (Bruning, Schraw & Ronning, 1999).The sensory memory refers to the initial perceptual processing that identifies incoming stimuli. The information then passes to short-term memory before it is coded before deciding if it should be translated into long-term memory (Bruning, Schraw & R onning, 1999). Thus, our cognition process tells us that meaning is constructed and it works hand in hand with our environment: behavior, visual register, and auditory sensors.Together, we are given a fuller sense of meaning of our actions, thoughts and behavior.   In the case of trauma, be it physical or psychological, our body is subjected to a form of shock, harm and hurt that leaves a lifelong effect which creates an unstableness of our perception and thoughts of   life when factors in the environment reminds our memory of the trauma (Bruning, Schraw & Ronning, 1999). This paper will discuss the subject of cognition in relation to trauma and memory.When we recall a bad episode it means the cognitive department of our brain has translated meaning from our surroundings. Our five sensors would have been involved in the incident (accident, abuse, etc) sending messages to our brain that the thought is unpleasant. This construction of meaning depends on three things in the act of our cognition: the nature of the stimuli, (2) our background knowledge, and (3) the context in which we encounter the stimuli (Marr, 1982, 1985).For instance, visual perception cannot occur if nothing is seen, likewise with our other sensors. When someone has undergone trauma, a pattern recognition occurs in which the person’s mind recognizes and stores the episode in his memory. Repeated series of trauma can be looked upon as someone being consistently hammered in the head influencing the mind to create side effects physiologically, mildly known as stress but if chronic, we know it as post-traumatic disorders.Post-traumatic disorders can be damaging as it prevents the person from normal daily functions. In this situation, the functional processes we discussed earlier have been disrupted into a form of mutation where the body sends offending signals throughout the entire body weakening the entire human system. Once weakened, the person becomes subject to illnesses such as can cers, mental disorders such as manic depression and suicidal, through to even death (Bruning, Schraw & Ronning, 1999).The mind, it is believed, is powerful enough to control the entire human body operated by its mental functions and processes. Thus, trauma, especially in children, cannot be easily dismissed as an episode that can be swept aside.As Freud theorized, the human is like a storage warehouse. Everything that has been experienced are recorded and kept in the warehouse. These chunks of memories leak subconsciously throughout out life from subtle to severe activities such as dreams (or nightmares), Freudian slips, hysteria and flashbacks (Bruning, Schraw & Ronning, 1999).   

Dharmodas Ghose Case Essay

Dharmodas Ghose, a minor, entered into a contract for borrowing a sum of Rs. 20,000 out of which the lender paid the minor a sum of Rs. 8,000. The minor executed mortgage of property in favour of the lender. Subsequently, the minor sued for setting aside the mortgage. The Privy Council had to ascertain the validity of the mortgage. Under Section 7 of the Transfer of Property Act, every person competent to contract is competent to mortgage. The Privy Council decided that Sections 10 and 11 of the Indian Contract Act make the minor’s contract void. The mortgagee prayed for refund of Rs. 8,000 by the minor. The Privy Council further held that as a minor’s contract is void, any money advanced to a minor cannot be recovered. JUSTICE SIR FORD NORTH On July 20, 1895, the respondent, Dharmodas Ghose, executed a mortgage in favour of Brahmo Dutt, a money-lender carrying on business at Calcutta and elsewhere, to secure the repayment of Rs. 20,000 at 12 per cent interest on some houses belonging to the respondent. The amount actually advanced is in dispute. At that time the respondent was an infant; and he did not attain twenty-one until the month of September following. Throughout the transaction Brahmo Dutt was absent from Calcutta, and the whole business was carried through for him by his attorney, Kedar Nath Mitter, the money being found by Dedraj, the local manager of Brahmo Dutt. While considering the proposed advance, Kedar Nath received information that the respondent was  still a minor; and on July15, 1895, the following letter was written and sent to him by Bhupendra Nath Bose, an attorney: â€Å"Dear Sir, I am instructed by S.M. Jogendranundinee Dasi, the mother and guardian appointed by the High Court of the person and property of Babu Dharmodas Ghose, that a mortgage of the properties of the said Babu Dharmodas Ghose is being prepared from your office. I am instructed to give you notice, which I hereby do, that the said Babu Dharmodas Ghose is still an infant under the age of twenty-one, and any one lending money to him will do so at his own risk and peril.† Kedar Nath positively denied the receipt of any such letter; but the Court of first instance and the Appellate Court both held that he did personally receive it on July 15; and the evidence is conclusive upon the point. On the day on which the mortgage was executed, Kedar Nath got the infant to sign a long declaration, which he had prepared for him, containing a statement that he came of age on June 17; and that Babu Dedraj and Brahmo Dutt, relying on his assurance that he had attained his majority, had agreed to advance to him Rs. 20,000. There is conflicting evidence as to the time when and circumstances under which that declaration was obtained; but it is unnecessary to go into this, as both Courts below have held that Kedar Nath did not act upon, and was not misled by, that statement, and was fully aware at the time the mortgage was executed of the minority of the respondent On September 10, 1895, the infant, by his mother and guardian as next friend, commenced this action againt Brahmo Dutt, stating that he was under age when he executed the mortgage, and praying for a declaration that it was void and inoperative, and should be delivered up to be cancelled. The defendant, Brahmo Dutt, put in a defence that the plaintiff was of full age when he executed the mortgage; that neither he nor Kedar Nath had any notice that the plaintiff was then an infant, that, even if he was a minor, the declaration as to his age was fraudulently made to deceive the defendant, and disentitled the plaintiff to any relief; and that in any case the Court should not grant the plaintiff any relief without making him repay the moneys advanced. Jenkins J., who presided in the Court of first instance, found the facts as above stated, and granted the relief asked. And the Appellate Court dismissed the appeal from him. Subsequently to the institution of the present appeal Brahmo Dutt died, and this appeal has been prosecuted by his executors. The first of the appellants’ reasons in support of the present appeal is that the Courts below were wrong in holding that the knowledge of Kedar Nath must be imputed to the defendant. In their Lordships’ opinion they were obviously right. The defendant was absent from Calcutta, and personally did not take any part in the transaction. It was entirely in charge of Kedar Nath, whose full authority to act as he did is not disputed. He stood in the place of the defendant for the purposes of this mortgage; and his acts and knowledge were the acts and knowledge of his principal. It was contended that Dedraj, the defendant’s gomastha, was the real representative in Calcutta of the defendant, and that he had no knowledge of the plaintiff’s minority. But there is nothing in this. He no doubt made the advance out of the defendant’s funds. But he says in his evidence that â€Å"Kedar Babu was acting on behalf of my master from the beginning in this matter;† and a little further on he adds that before the registration of the mortgage he did not communicate with his master on the subject of the minority. But he did know that there was a question raised as to the plaintiff’s age; and he says, â€Å"I left all matters regarding the minority in the hands of Kedar Babu.† The appellants’ counsel contended that the plaintiff is estopped by Section 115 of the Indian Evidence Act (I. of 1872) from setting up that he was an infant when he executed the mortgage. The section is as follows: â€Å"Estoppels. When one person has by his declaration act or omission intentionally caused or permitted another person to believe a thing to be true, and to act upon such belief, neither he nor his representative shall be allowed in any suit or proceeding between himself and such person or his representative to deny the truth of that thing.† The Courts below seem to have decided that this section does not apply to infants; but their Lordships do not think it necessary to deal with that question now. They consider it clear that the section does not apply to a  case like the present, where the statement relied upon is made to a person who knows the real facts and is not misled by the untrue statement. There can be no estoppel where the truth of the matter is known to both parties, and their Lordships hold, in accordance with English authorities, that a false representation, made to a person who knows it to be false, is not such a fraud as to take away the privilege of infancy: Nelson v Stocker [1 De G. & J. 458]. The same principle is recognised in the explanation to Section 19 of the Indian Contract Act, in which it is said that a fraud or misrepresentation which did not cause the consent to a contract of the party on whom such fraud was practiced, or to whom such misrepresentation was made, does not render a contract voidable. The point most pressed, however, on behalf of the appellants was that the Courts ought not to have decreed in the respondent’s favour without ordering him to repay to the appellants the sum of Rs. 10,500, said to have been paid to him as part of the consideration for the mortgage. And in support of this contention Section. 64 of the Contract Act (IX of 1872) was relied on: Both Courts below held that they were bound by authority to treat the contracts of infants as voidable only, and not void; but that this section only refers to contracts made by persons competent to contract, and therefore not to infants. The general current of decision in India certainly is that ever since the passing of the Indian Contract Act the contracts of infants are voidable only. This conclusion, however, has not been arrived at without vigourous protests by various judges from time to time; nor indeed without decisions to the contrary effect. Under these circumstances, their Lordships consider themselves at liberty to act on their own view of the law as declared by the Contract Act, and they have thought it right to have the case reargued before them upon this point. They do not consider it necessary to examine in detail the numerous decisions above referred to, as in their opinion the whole question turns upon what is the true construction of the Contract Act itself. It is necessary, therefore, to consider carefully the terms of that  Act; but before doing so it may be convenient to refer to the Transfer of Property Act (IV of 1882), s.7 of which provides that every person competent to contract and entitled to transferable property †¦ is competent to transfer such property †¦ in the circumstances, to the extent, and in the manner allowed and prescribed by any law for the time being in force. That is the Act under which the present mortgage was made, and it is merely dealing with persons competent to contract; and s. 4 of that Act provides that the chapters and sections of that Act which relate to contracts are to be taken as part of the Indian Contract Act, 1872. The present case, therefore, falls within the provisions of the latter Act. Then, to turn to the Contract Act, s. 2 provides (e) Every promise and every set of promises, forming the consideration for each other, is an agreement. (g) An agreement not enforceable by law is said to be void. An agreement enforceable by law is a contract, (i) An agreement which is enforceable by law at the option of one or more of the parties- thereto, but not at the option of the other or others, is a voidable contract Sect. 10 provides: â€Å"All agreements are contracts if they are made by the free consent of parties competent to contract, for a lawful consideration and with a lawful object, and are not thereby expressly declared to be void.† Then Sec. 11 is most important, as defining who are meant by â€Å"persons competent to contract;† it is as follows: â€Å"Every person is competent to contract who is of the age of majority according to the law to which he is subject, and who is of sound mind, and is not disqualified from contracting by any law to which he is subject. Looking at these sections, their Lordships are satisfied that the Act makes it essential that all contracting parties should be â€Å"competent to contract,† and expressly provides that a person who by reason of infancy is incompetent to contract cannot make a contract within the meaning of the Act. This is clearly borne out by later sections in the Act. Sec. 68 provides that, â€Å"If a person incapable of entering into a contract, or any one whom he is legally bound to support, is supplied by another person with necessaries suited to his condition in life, the person who has furnished such supplies is entitled to be reimbursed from  the property of such incapable person.† It is beyond question that an infant falls within the class of persons here referred to as incapable of entering into a contract; and it is clear from the Act that he is not to be liable even for necessaries, and that no demand in respect thereof is enforceable against him by law, though a statutory claim is created against his property. Under Section. 183 and 184 no person under the age of majority can enjoy or be an agent. Again, under Section. 247 and 248, although a person under majority may be admitted to the benefits of a partnership, he cannot be made personally liable for any of its obligations; although he may on attaining majority accept those obligations if he thinks fit to do so. The question whether a contract is void or voidable presupposes the existence of a contract within the meaning of the Act, and cannot arise in the case of an infant. Their Lordships are, therefore, of opinion that in the present case there is not any such voidable contract as is dealt with in Sec tion 64. A new point was raised here by the appellants’ counsel, founded on s. 65 of the Contract Act, a section not referred to in the Courts below, or in the cases of the appellants or respondent. It is sufficient to say that this section, like Section. 64, starts from the basis of there being an agreement or contract between competent parties, and has no application to a case in which there never was, and never could have been, any contract. It was further argued that the preamble of the Act showed that the Act was only intended to define and amend certain parts of the law relating to contracts, and that contracts by infants were left outside the Act. If this were so, it does not appear how it would help the appellants. But in their Lordships’ opinion the Act, so far as it goes, is exhaustive and imperative, and does provide in clear language that an infant is not a person competent to bind himself by a contract of this description . Another enactment relied upon as a reason why the mortgage money should be returned is Section 41 of the Specific Relief Act (I of 1877), which is as follows: â€Å"Sec. 41. On adjudging the cancellation of an instrument the Court may require the party to whom such relief is granted to make any compensation to the other which justice may require.† Sec.38. provides in  similar terms for a case of rescission of a contract. These sections, no doubt, do give a discretion to the Court; but the Court of first instance, and subsequently the Appellate Court, in the exercise of such discretion, came to the conclusion that under the circumstances of this case justice did not require them to order the return by the respondent of money advanced to him with full knowledge of his infancy, and their Lordships see no reason for interfering with the discretion so exercised.